Collocative meaning
Collocative meaning consists of
the associations a word acquires
on account of the meanings of
words which tend to occur in its
environment,
Pretty and handsome share common
ground in the meaning "good-looking",
but may be distinguished by the range of
nouns with which they are likely to co-
occur.
Girl boy
boy man
woman car
flower vessel
pretty garden handsome overcoat
colour airliner
village typewriter
etc,etc.
The ranges may well,of course,overlap,
handsome woman and pretty woman are
both acceptable,although they suggest a
different kind of attractiveness because
of the collocative associations of the two
adjectives,
Further examples are quasi-synonymous
verbs such as wander and stroll (cows
may wander,but may not stroll ) or
tremble and quiver (one trembles with
fear,but quivers with excitement).
Not all differences in
potential co-occurrence
need to be explained as
collocative meaning,some
may be due to stylistic
differences,others to
conceptual differences.
It is t he inc ong r u it y of
combining unlike styles that
makes " He mounted his gee-
gee" or " He got on his steed "an
impr ob ab le c omb inat ion,
On the other hand,the acceptability
of,The donkey ate hay",as opposed
to,The donkey ate silence",is a
matter of compatibility on the level
of conceptual semantics
Only when explanation in terms of
other categories of meaning does not
apply do we need to invoke the special
category of collocative meaning.
Collocative meaning is simply
an idiosyncratic property of
individual words.
2.Weakpoints:
According to Leech,pretty
and handsome both mean
“nice-looking”,but their
collocative meanings
differ,because they co-
occur with different
words and they suggest
two kinds of beauty.
But how do we interpret such
words as,good,strong and high”
when they collocate respectively
with,chance,likelihood,
probability,possibility”?
good likelihood strong likelihood *high likelihood
*good probability strong probability high probability
good possibility strong possibility *high possibility
good chance *strong chance * high chance
Leech might say:good goes with,chance,
likelihood,possibility”,strong collocates
with,likelihood,probability,possibility”，
high modifies,likelihood,probability”,
The differences in collocations represent
the differences in collocative meaning.
If we say pretty and
handsome will give rise to
associations about different
kinds of beauty,then what
kind of,bigness” do,good,
strong and high”convey in
our mind?
able
When,able” is used predicatively,or when
it is used as a modifier of another noun,it
can be collocated with,very,really,
quite”,not the words,perfectly,well,
totally”,e.g.
Mary is very (really,quite)
able.
Mary is a very (really,quite)
able student.
*Mary is perfectly (well,
totally) able.
*Mary is a perfectly (well,
totally) able student.
But in the pattern,“be able to do sth.”,it
can not be collocated with,very”,It
can,however,collocate with the words
“really,quite,perfectly,well,totally,for
example:
*Mary is very able to give the lecture.
Mary is really (quite,perfectly,well,
totally) able to give the lecture.
Leech?s collocative theory is a waste
basket theory in the sense that when
the combination of words cannot be
explained,it will be thrown into the
waste basket.
Leech?s definition of collocative
meaning seems to be clearcut,But
when we use his definition to analyse
collocative meaning,we often find it
difficult to find a demarcation line
between collocative meaning and
other kinds of meaning.
First,the seven kinds of
meanings are not well defined in
that very often there are
overlapping between them,Let?s
examine Leech?s comment on,pretty
and handsome” again.
“Pretty and handsome”
share common ground
in the meaning "good-
looking",but may be
distinguished by the
range of nouns with
which they are likely
to co-occur.
Girl boy
boy man
woman car
flower vessel
pretty garden handsome overcoat
colour airliner
village typewriter
etc,etc.
Then he points out：, The
ranges ma y w ell overlap,
handsome woman and pretty
woman are both acceptable,
although they suggest a different
kind of attractiveness because of
the collocative associations of the
t w o a d j e c t i v e s,,
Leech believes that both
“handsome woman” and,pretty
woman” are acceptable,but they
are associated with different kinds
of beauty,In fact,their co-
occurrence can also be well
explained with reference to
c onc ep tu a l me a ning or to
c o n n o t a t i v e m e a n i n g,
In his discussion of connotative
meaning,Leech points out:,In talking
about connotation,I am in fact talking
about the ?real world? experience one
associates with an expression when one
uses or hears it.”
见 Leech 的 Semantics,the study of
meaning 第 12-13页
He cites,woman” as an example,in the past
woman has been burdened with such
attributes as,frail,prone to tears,cowardly,
emotional,irrational,inconstant,as well as
gentle,compassionate,sensitive,hard
working,etc..” All these have formed part of
the connotations of the word
“woman”.According to his theory of
connotation,we can well conclude that the
differences in,pretty? and,handsome” are
different associations that they give rise to in
users? mind.
pretty
[+delicacy,+superficial,-manliness,-big,
-dignity]
handsome
[+vigor,+dignity,+big,+manliness]
The differences in connotations have affected
their collocations or co-occurrence.
From the angle of
conceptual meaning,
Leech has neglected that the
conceptual meaning is often
affected by the collocation so
that new meanings may be
derived from the original
m e a n i n g s of a w o r d,
事实上，词义发展的主要方式之一就
是词与词在同现中词义间的相互影响。
一个词初次被创造，一般都是单语义
词，由于同现中联想的结果，使得语
言使用者会把联想的成分注入到词的
理性语义之中，一个词的理性意义就
会受到影响。
就 pretty和 handsome而言, 许多字典
编撰人员已经把它们的一些联想语
义看成是理性意义的一部分,例如：
handsome,A woman who is handsome has
an attractive,smart appearance,especially
with features that are large and regular rather
than small and delicate and that are
considered to show strength of character.
A building,garden,etc.,that is handsome is
large and well made with an attractive
appearance.
(Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary)
pretty,Someone,especially a woman or
girl,who is pretty is nice to look at and
attractive in a delicate way.
A place or a thing that is pretty is nice to look
at in a rather conventional or superficial way.
(Collins Cobuild English
Language Dictionary)
handsome,(of a man) good-looking,
esp,in having regular,pleasing and
well-defined features,2,(of a
woman)fine-looking in a dignified way.
3.well-proportioned,stately,or comely
( Collins English
Dictionary)
pretty,1.pleasing or appealing in a
delicate or graceful way… 4,Informal:
lacking masculinity; effeminate;
foppish
( Collins English Dictionary)
handsome,1,chiefly dial:
appropriate,suitable 2.moderately
large 3,marked by skill or
cleverness 4,marked by
graciousness or generosity 5,having
a pleasing and usu,impressive or
dignified appearance
(Webster New Collegiate Dictionary)
pretty,1,artful and clever 2,a,pleasing
by delicacy or grace b,Having
conventionally accepted elements of beauty
c,Appearing or sounding pleasant or nice
but lacking strength force,manliness,
purpose,or intensity…
(Webster New Collegiate Dictionary)
就理性意义而言，它的稳定性只
是相对的，词的使用一旦与语言
语境和非语言语境相联系就会产
生许多语用性语义或临时性语义。
这些语用性语义有时具有, 累加
性,,当语用性语义与语境的结
合具有一定的稳定性时，旧的语
言形式就会与新的内容之间形成
超符号关系，产生新的理念语义。
由于理念语义尚存在动态变化, 作为理念
语义以外的各种具有开放性特征的附加语
义更是如此 。 如何确定一个词与另一个词
的结合属于搭配语义范畴或非搭配语义范
畴就很难有一个明确的标准, 专家各执己
见, 莫衷一是 。
Leech列举了 tremble 和 quiver在搭配语义
上的不同, 例句如下：
见 Leech的 Semantics,the study of meaning
第 17页
Tremble with fear
Quiver with excitement
但是字典对 tremble 和 quiver
又是如何定义的呢？
Tremble:
to shake involuntarily from fear,excitement,
etc.
(Longman Modern English Dictionary)
to shake involuntarily with fear,anger,cold,
physical weakness,etc.)
(The Advanced Learner?s Dictionary of
Current English with Chinese Translations)
to shake involuntarily as with cold or fear
(Collins English Dictionary)
to shake involuntarily as with fear or cold
(Webster?s Collegiate Dictionary)
Quiver:
to tremble,to shake with a slight,rapid
movement
(Longman Modern English Dictionary)
to tremble slightly or vibrate
(The Advanced Learner?s Dictionary of
Current English with Chinese Translations)
to shake with a rapid tremulous movement
(Collins English Dictionary)
to shake or move with a slight trembling
motion
(Webster?s Collegiate Dictionary)
从以上可以看出，字典在对 tremble 进行
释义时，语义较为具体、明确，几乎毫
无例外都赋 予 tremble以 [fear]的附加语义
特征，而在对 quiver进行定性时，并没有
附加语义特征。
虽然 excitement 并不是 tremble和 quiver的
区别性特征, 但是由于人们已明确地 把
[fear]的附加语义特征看成是 tremble语义
特征的一部分, 因此 tremble with fear的
搭配便是情理之中 。
在 Leech看来，有必要引进搭配意义的概
念是因为它们词义之间的语义结合从其
它语义关系中得不到解释。但是问题是
一个词的理性语义所包含的区别性语义
特征并不是一层不变的，词与词之间的
搭配以及它们搭配时所具有的语境本身
对词的区别性语义特征会产生影响。
在 Charlotte Bronte的小说 Jane Eyre
中, 作者共使用了 shiver七次, 它
的搭配以及出现的情景语境都与
cold紧密结合, 如：
… it was bitter cold,and I dressed as
well as I could for shivering,…
(chapter 5)
Mr,Mason,shivering as some one
chanced to open the door,asked for
more coal to be put on the
fire,… (chapter 18)
I was burdened with the charge of a little
child,a very small creature,too young and
feeble to walk,and which shivered in my cold
arms…
(chapter 25)
I looked at my love,that feeling which was
my master's- which he had created; it shivered
in my heart,like a suffering child in a cold
cradle;
(Chapter 26)
正因如此, 许多字典已把 [cold]这一语义特
征附加到 shiver 的理性语义之中, 如：
shiver,to shake or tremble as from cold or fear
(Collins English Dictionary)
shiver,to shake especially with cold or
fear
(Longman Modern English Dictionary)
shiver,to tremble or shake,as with fear,
cold or excitement
(The Cassell encyclopaedia Dictionary)
虽然在 The Advanced Learner?s
Dictionary of Current English with
Chinese Translations中可见 quiver with
cold这一搭配性使用, 但是 [cold]作为一
个附加语义特征还没有注入到 quiver的
理性语义之中 。 因此, 完全有理由认为,
shiver和 quiver的以上搭配同样是词汇语
义不同的结果 。
三、对搭配语义的思考
词的搭配是词的重要特征 。 词的搭配意
义的研究应涉及到对一个词的词汇意义,
联想意义, 语法意义和语用意义的综合作
用研究 。 如果只是把词的搭配意义限制在
,只有在按照意义的其它范畴都解释不通
的时候, 我们才需要求助于搭配意义这个
特殊范畴, 之中, 那么搭配语义也就失去
了它的研究价值和魅力, 也就使搭配语义
过于简单化 。
词的搭配意义的研究应该是对一个词在语
音、句法、语义和语用四个层面上与其它
词的连接能力的研究,应该是各个语义范
畴相容能力的研究。
一个词是否能与另一个词搭配与这个词
的语义特征有着重要的联系 。 每个词都
有其相对稳定的语义特征库 。 这个语义
特征库包括词在使用时的语法语义特征,
以及理性语义特征和理性语义以外的其
它语义特征 。 这些特征决定了一个词与
另一个词的结合是常规结合还是反常规
结合 。 以 Absolutely为例,
In her anger,she absolutely screamed at
him.
*In her anger,she absolutely spoke to
him.
Absolutely与 scream搭配是规约搭配,
它与 speak的搭配是非常规搭配, 这是
因为 absolutely作为强调语修饰动词时
在它的语义特征中常要求它的谓体具
有某种,夸张,的语义特征 。
我们再看 rightly与 know的搭配 。 Rightly具
有, 指说话人, 这一语义特征 。 比如在 I
don?t rightly know这句话中, 有一些表示
歉意的意思, 这只能适用于说话人；我们
从来不说 You don?t rightly know,但是我
们可以说 He didn?t rightly know,意思是
,他说他并不知道, 。 这里在从句中的
,他, 就是说话人 。
Judge是不可分等级词, 它的语义特征之
一就是 [… -gradable],因此在搭配语义上
与 very much不兼容, 但是 misjudge却是可
分等级的, 含有 [… +gradable]的语义特征,
因为 misjudge表示判断的结果, 并且也有
评估含义, 因此与 very much在搭配语义
上是兼容的 。 如：
*He very much judged the situation
*He badly（ 作为强势语 ） misjudged
the situation.
He very much misjudged the situation.
He badly misjudged the situation.
要注意的是若把 以上句子中的, badly”
理解为方式状语或结果状语, 那么它
必须位于句末位置上, 如：
He judged the situation badly.
在此用法上与 judge和 misjudge相类似的词
还有：
calculate miscalculate
estimate, overestimate,underestimate
represent misrepresent
behave misbehave
manage mismanage
在语音方面, 语言的超音位特征将
影响到词与词之间的搭配意义 。 例
如：
26) I like the fellow.
27) I like the person.
从 like,fellow以及 person的语义特征来分
析, like与 fellow和 person在理念语义上是
相容的。用 Leech的话来说，也就是它们
的结合可以从其它语义范畴中得到解释，
因此不属于搭配语义研究的范畴。但是
孤立地研究一个句子是否属于搭配语义
很难具有说服力，试比较：
28）
like
I
the
fellow.
29）
like
I
the
person.
当我们赋予以上例句相同的超
音位特征时，我们会发现例 28）
中包含着这样一层含义：, 尽
管别人可能不喜欢他，但我喜
欢他, 。这一层含义是例 29）
所不具有的。
我们还可以发现如果用 guy,man,girl,
woman,bastard 替代例 28） 中的 fellow，
以上含义仍然存在；但是如果我们用
gentleman,lady,Elizabeth,person等词
去替换 fellow,以上含义就会消失 。 这
种词的结合导致的含义差别不是我们
从理念语义或 Leech意义上的其它联想
语义所能解决的, 因此, 在讨论搭配
语义时不应忽视语音的作用 。
超音位特征对语义搭配的影响在英语
中是司空见惯的 。 例如：
He is a French teacher.
孤立地来看 French teacher,我们很
难判别 French在与 teacher搭配时是什
么意思 。
但是在特定超音位的语境中，当我们赋
予 French一个主重音,Teacher一个次
重音，这时,He is a French teacher
就有了明确的意义，即：他是一位法语
教师。
A ˊFrench,teacher teaches French.
如果我们赋予 French一个次重音，
teacher一个主重音，这时 He is a
French teacher中的 French表示法
国国籍：
A,French ˊteacher is French.
Old,new,pure,wrong在与名词搭配
时有时并不直接描绘名词所表示的
对象, 常常是在转意的基础上与名
词构成语义关联 。 在语音上, 重音
常常落在形容词上, 试比较：
my ˊ old,friend (old,long known or long
familiar) 不可以转换成,
*My friend is old.
my ˊ new,friend 不可以转换成,
*My friend is new.
a ˊ pure,scientist 不可以转换成,
* The scientist is pure.
theˊ wrong,applicant 不可以转换成,
*The applicant is wrong.
词与词的搭配不仅涉及到词与词在意义
上的相容关系，也受到词的语法语义的
限制。这里所说的语法语义不只是传统
的词在“数”、“时”、“格”等方面
的意义，而是词在句中的分配位置，或
它能在句法中占有的空间。相同的词在
与不同的词结合时，它所能占据的句法
空间是不一样的。
换句话说, 它们所要求的语言语境可能
是不一样的 。 以 Badly为例, badly与动
词 treat语义之间存在相容关系并不一定
导致可接受的搭配 。 从共现的角度来看
,与 treat共现的词可能是一些表示 treat
方式词,badly是其中之一：
* They very badly treated me.
They treated me very badly.
They were badly treated.
They were treated badly.
从以上 badly的句法功能来看, 它充当了方
式附加状语的功能, 在主动句中, 当方式
附加状语是信息的中心, 且是动词的必具
性状语, 它就只能处于句末的位置 。 在被
动句中, badly所占的句法空间比较自由,
可紧占据 treat前位, 也可紧占据 treat后位 。
Well作为方式状语时, 如果它是动词的
必具性状语, 那么它必须处在句末的位
置上, 如：
He put the point well.
*He well put the point.
如果它不是动词的必具性方式状语,
它就既可以位于句末位置上, 也可
以位于情态动词与实意动词之间,
如：
I can understand your point well.
I can well understand your point.
当 across 作为方
向或目标语状语
成为谓体的附加
状语时, 在肯定
句中, across 可
以移至句首, 如：
Across:
Across the field,
we walked，
carrying heavy
equipment.
We walked across
the field,carrying
heavy equipment.
但是在否定句中,
由于这类状语往往
是否定的焦点, 所
以在否定句中,
across引导的方向
或目标附加状语通
常都不跳出否定结
构范围之外, 如：
They didn?t walk across the field,carrying
heavy equipment.
*Across the field,they didn?t walk,
carrying heavy equipment.
当 towards作为方向或
目标语状语成为谓体
的附加状语时, 在肯
定句中, towards可以
移至句首, 如：
Towards the fort,the
s old ie rs m a rc he d,
但是在否定句中,
由于这类状语往往
是否定的焦点, 所
以在否定句中,
towards引导的方向
或目标附加状语通
常都不跳出否定结
构范围之外, 如：
The soldiers didn?t march
towards the fort.
*Towards the fort,
the soldiers didn?t march.
在英语中 go经常带起
一个方向或目标附加
状语和一个来源附加
状语,如,
He went to America from Japan.
Go
当方向或目标附加状语与来源附加
状语同时出现时,其中的来源附加状
语可以移至句首,如,
From Japan,he
went to America.
但是在方向或目标
附加状语和来源附
加状语同时出现时,
其中的方向或目标
附加状语不可以移
至句首,如,
*To America,he went
from Japan.
词的搭配意义的研究最终是对词的
共现的研究, 由于语义不是有和无
的关系, 而是或多或少的关系, 这
就使得词与词之间的搭配关系也是
一种盖然的关系 。
有时这种盖然的关系会受到其他语
言语境的影响。以 worth while为例，
Leech可能认为 worth与 while的共现
不应归入搭配语义范畴，因为
worth 与 while在理念语义上是相容
的。
即使两个词在理念语义、内涵语
义、社会语义、情感语义、反映
语义等方面具有相容性也不意味
着它们的共现就是可接受的。
英语允许 worth与 while之间插入一个物
主代词，事实上很多字典把 worth one?s
while作为一种搭配被固定了下来，但
是并不是所有的物主代词或名词所有格
形式都可以自然处于 one?s这一空位。
换句话说，由 于 one?s语言语境的存在使
得 worth与 while的共现产生了度的差异。
在 worth one?s while这一搭配中, your是
连接 worth和 while最常见, 最自然的成
分, 而普通名词或专有名词的所有格形
式是最不可接受的, 如：
*It?s worth Brian?s while to learn a
second language.
*It?s worth a rich man?s while to help
the poor.
除了名词的所有格以外, 不定代词的
所有格形式也不可以占据 one?s空位 。
以下例句是不可接受的：
*Is it worth anybody?s while to take up
a challenging job?
就物主代词而言，处于 one?s空位可
接受性最低的是 my,对于以英语为母
语的人来说，他们更倾向于把 worth
your while作为自然的搭配，尽管 his
的使用频率比其它物主代词要高，但
低于 your。
Acceptable unacceptable
your his their my anybody?s John?s
对词的搭配语义的研究还必须考虑语
用因素, 试比较：
We always found him cheerful.
We always found him glad.
符号?表示该句只有在特定的语境
中才是可接受的 。
以英语为母语的人不难发现, 在第一
句中 cheerful可以与 found和 him 自然结
合, 形成有意义的语义结合链, 而在第
二句中, found him glad 要成为有意义的
语义结合链, 就必须借助语境, 即交际
双方具有共有知识 。 这种共有知识就是
交际双方都知道导致 him高兴的原因 。
词与词的共现会受社会因素的影响：
Career woman,family man:
以英国为例，男女有着明确的社会分工。
传统的风俗是男人有着事业的追求，理应
是家庭中“挣面包的人”；而女人的职业
只能是在家庭伺候丈夫、孩子，做好男人
所需的各种后勤工作。对家庭中的男女传
统职能的划分在英语表达法, career
woman”和, family man”中也得以体现。
人们对独立词项, woman”和
,man”传统的理解分别是, 家庭
妇女, 和, 职业男性, 。 英语中
没有, family woman”和, career
man”表达法足以证明这一点 。 无
论是, career woman”,还是
,family man”,它们所蕴涵的
,职业女性, 和, 无职业男性,
的概念由多个词来承担, 从一个
侧面反映了在英国传统社会中,
他们不是主流 。
Collocative meaning consists of
the associations a word acquires
on account of the meanings of
words which tend to occur in its
environment,
Pretty and handsome share common
ground in the meaning "good-looking",
but may be distinguished by the range of
nouns with which they are likely to co-
occur.
Girl boy
boy man
woman car
flower vessel
pretty garden handsome overcoat
colour airliner
village typewriter
etc,etc.
The ranges may well,of course,overlap,
handsome woman and pretty woman are
both acceptable,although they suggest a
different kind of attractiveness because
of the collocative associations of the two
adjectives,
Further examples are quasi-synonymous
verbs such as wander and stroll (cows
may wander,but may not stroll ) or
tremble and quiver (one trembles with
fear,but quivers with excitement).
Not all differences in
potential co-occurrence
need to be explained as
collocative meaning,some
may be due to stylistic
differences,others to
conceptual differences.
It is t he inc ong r u it y of
combining unlike styles that
makes " He mounted his gee-
gee" or " He got on his steed "an
impr ob ab le c omb inat ion,
On the other hand,the acceptability
of,The donkey ate hay",as opposed
to,The donkey ate silence",is a
matter of compatibility on the level
of conceptual semantics
Only when explanation in terms of
other categories of meaning does not
apply do we need to invoke the special
category of collocative meaning.
Collocative meaning is simply
an idiosyncratic property of
individual words.
2.Weakpoints:
According to Leech,pretty
and handsome both mean
“nice-looking”,but their
collocative meanings
differ,because they co-
occur with different
words and they suggest
two kinds of beauty.
But how do we interpret such
words as,good,strong and high”
when they collocate respectively
with,chance,likelihood,
probability,possibility”?
good likelihood strong likelihood *high likelihood
*good probability strong probability high probability
good possibility strong possibility *high possibility
good chance *strong chance * high chance
Leech might say:good goes with,chance,
likelihood,possibility”,strong collocates
with,likelihood,probability,possibility”，
high modifies,likelihood,probability”,
The differences in collocations represent
the differences in collocative meaning.
If we say pretty and
handsome will give rise to
associations about different
kinds of beauty,then what
kind of,bigness” do,good,
strong and high”convey in
our mind?
able
When,able” is used predicatively,or when
it is used as a modifier of another noun,it
can be collocated with,very,really,
quite”,not the words,perfectly,well,
totally”,e.g.
Mary is very (really,quite)
able.
Mary is a very (really,quite)
able student.
*Mary is perfectly (well,
totally) able.
*Mary is a perfectly (well,
totally) able student.
But in the pattern,“be able to do sth.”,it
can not be collocated with,very”,It
can,however,collocate with the words
“really,quite,perfectly,well,totally,for
example:
*Mary is very able to give the lecture.
Mary is really (quite,perfectly,well,
totally) able to give the lecture.
Leech?s collocative theory is a waste
basket theory in the sense that when
the combination of words cannot be
explained,it will be thrown into the
waste basket.
Leech?s definition of collocative
meaning seems to be clearcut,But
when we use his definition to analyse
collocative meaning,we often find it
difficult to find a demarcation line
between collocative meaning and
other kinds of meaning.
First,the seven kinds of
meanings are not well defined in
that very often there are
overlapping between them,Let?s
examine Leech?s comment on,pretty
and handsome” again.
“Pretty and handsome”
share common ground
in the meaning "good-
looking",but may be
distinguished by the
range of nouns with
which they are likely
to co-occur.
Girl boy
boy man
woman car
flower vessel
pretty garden handsome overcoat
colour airliner
village typewriter
etc,etc.
Then he points out：, The
ranges ma y w ell overlap,
handsome woman and pretty
woman are both acceptable,
although they suggest a different
kind of attractiveness because of
the collocative associations of the
t w o a d j e c t i v e s,,
Leech believes that both
“handsome woman” and,pretty
woman” are acceptable,but they
are associated with different kinds
of beauty,In fact,their co-
occurrence can also be well
explained with reference to
c onc ep tu a l me a ning or to
c o n n o t a t i v e m e a n i n g,
In his discussion of connotative
meaning,Leech points out:,In talking
about connotation,I am in fact talking
about the ?real world? experience one
associates with an expression when one
uses or hears it.”
见 Leech 的 Semantics,the study of
meaning 第 12-13页
He cites,woman” as an example,in the past
woman has been burdened with such
attributes as,frail,prone to tears,cowardly,
emotional,irrational,inconstant,as well as
gentle,compassionate,sensitive,hard
working,etc..” All these have formed part of
the connotations of the word
“woman”.According to his theory of
connotation,we can well conclude that the
differences in,pretty? and,handsome” are
different associations that they give rise to in
users? mind.
pretty
[+delicacy,+superficial,-manliness,-big,
-dignity]
handsome
[+vigor,+dignity,+big,+manliness]
The differences in connotations have affected
their collocations or co-occurrence.
From the angle of
conceptual meaning,
Leech has neglected that the
conceptual meaning is often
affected by the collocation so
that new meanings may be
derived from the original
m e a n i n g s of a w o r d,
事实上，词义发展的主要方式之一就
是词与词在同现中词义间的相互影响。
一个词初次被创造，一般都是单语义
词，由于同现中联想的结果，使得语
言使用者会把联想的成分注入到词的
理性语义之中，一个词的理性意义就
会受到影响。
就 pretty和 handsome而言, 许多字典
编撰人员已经把它们的一些联想语
义看成是理性意义的一部分,例如：
handsome,A woman who is handsome has
an attractive,smart appearance,especially
with features that are large and regular rather
than small and delicate and that are
considered to show strength of character.
A building,garden,etc.,that is handsome is
large and well made with an attractive
appearance.
(Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary)
pretty,Someone,especially a woman or
girl,who is pretty is nice to look at and
attractive in a delicate way.
A place or a thing that is pretty is nice to look
at in a rather conventional or superficial way.
(Collins Cobuild English
Language Dictionary)
handsome,(of a man) good-looking,
esp,in having regular,pleasing and
well-defined features,2,(of a
woman)fine-looking in a dignified way.
3.well-proportioned,stately,or comely
( Collins English
Dictionary)
pretty,1.pleasing or appealing in a
delicate or graceful way… 4,Informal:
lacking masculinity; effeminate;
foppish
( Collins English Dictionary)
handsome,1,chiefly dial:
appropriate,suitable 2.moderately
large 3,marked by skill or
cleverness 4,marked by
graciousness or generosity 5,having
a pleasing and usu,impressive or
dignified appearance
(Webster New Collegiate Dictionary)
pretty,1,artful and clever 2,a,pleasing
by delicacy or grace b,Having
conventionally accepted elements of beauty
c,Appearing or sounding pleasant or nice
but lacking strength force,manliness,
purpose,or intensity…
(Webster New Collegiate Dictionary)
就理性意义而言，它的稳定性只
是相对的，词的使用一旦与语言
语境和非语言语境相联系就会产
生许多语用性语义或临时性语义。
这些语用性语义有时具有, 累加
性,,当语用性语义与语境的结
合具有一定的稳定性时，旧的语
言形式就会与新的内容之间形成
超符号关系，产生新的理念语义。
由于理念语义尚存在动态变化, 作为理念
语义以外的各种具有开放性特征的附加语
义更是如此 。 如何确定一个词与另一个词
的结合属于搭配语义范畴或非搭配语义范
畴就很难有一个明确的标准, 专家各执己
见, 莫衷一是 。
Leech列举了 tremble 和 quiver在搭配语义
上的不同, 例句如下：
见 Leech的 Semantics,the study of meaning
第 17页
Tremble with fear
Quiver with excitement
但是字典对 tremble 和 quiver
又是如何定义的呢？
Tremble:
to shake involuntarily from fear,excitement,
etc.
(Longman Modern English Dictionary)
to shake involuntarily with fear,anger,cold,
physical weakness,etc.)
(The Advanced Learner?s Dictionary of
Current English with Chinese Translations)
to shake involuntarily as with cold or fear
(Collins English Dictionary)
to shake involuntarily as with fear or cold
(Webster?s Collegiate Dictionary)
Quiver:
to tremble,to shake with a slight,rapid
movement
(Longman Modern English Dictionary)
to tremble slightly or vibrate
(The Advanced Learner?s Dictionary of
Current English with Chinese Translations)
to shake with a rapid tremulous movement
(Collins English Dictionary)
to shake or move with a slight trembling
motion
(Webster?s Collegiate Dictionary)
从以上可以看出，字典在对 tremble 进行
释义时，语义较为具体、明确，几乎毫
无例外都赋 予 tremble以 [fear]的附加语义
特征，而在对 quiver进行定性时，并没有
附加语义特征。
虽然 excitement 并不是 tremble和 quiver的
区别性特征, 但是由于人们已明确地 把
[fear]的附加语义特征看成是 tremble语义
特征的一部分, 因此 tremble with fear的
搭配便是情理之中 。
在 Leech看来，有必要引进搭配意义的概
念是因为它们词义之间的语义结合从其
它语义关系中得不到解释。但是问题是
一个词的理性语义所包含的区别性语义
特征并不是一层不变的，词与词之间的
搭配以及它们搭配时所具有的语境本身
对词的区别性语义特征会产生影响。
在 Charlotte Bronte的小说 Jane Eyre
中, 作者共使用了 shiver七次, 它
的搭配以及出现的情景语境都与
cold紧密结合, 如：
… it was bitter cold,and I dressed as
well as I could for shivering,…
(chapter 5)
Mr,Mason,shivering as some one
chanced to open the door,asked for
more coal to be put on the
fire,… (chapter 18)
I was burdened with the charge of a little
child,a very small creature,too young and
feeble to walk,and which shivered in my cold
arms…
(chapter 25)
I looked at my love,that feeling which was
my master's- which he had created; it shivered
in my heart,like a suffering child in a cold
cradle;
(Chapter 26)
正因如此, 许多字典已把 [cold]这一语义特
征附加到 shiver 的理性语义之中, 如：
shiver,to shake or tremble as from cold or fear
(Collins English Dictionary)
shiver,to shake especially with cold or
fear
(Longman Modern English Dictionary)
shiver,to tremble or shake,as with fear,
cold or excitement
(The Cassell encyclopaedia Dictionary)
虽然在 The Advanced Learner?s
Dictionary of Current English with
Chinese Translations中可见 quiver with
cold这一搭配性使用, 但是 [cold]作为一
个附加语义特征还没有注入到 quiver的
理性语义之中 。 因此, 完全有理由认为,
shiver和 quiver的以上搭配同样是词汇语
义不同的结果 。
三、对搭配语义的思考
词的搭配是词的重要特征 。 词的搭配意
义的研究应涉及到对一个词的词汇意义,
联想意义, 语法意义和语用意义的综合作
用研究 。 如果只是把词的搭配意义限制在
,只有在按照意义的其它范畴都解释不通
的时候, 我们才需要求助于搭配意义这个
特殊范畴, 之中, 那么搭配语义也就失去
了它的研究价值和魅力, 也就使搭配语义
过于简单化 。
词的搭配意义的研究应该是对一个词在语
音、句法、语义和语用四个层面上与其它
词的连接能力的研究,应该是各个语义范
畴相容能力的研究。
一个词是否能与另一个词搭配与这个词
的语义特征有着重要的联系 。 每个词都
有其相对稳定的语义特征库 。 这个语义
特征库包括词在使用时的语法语义特征,
以及理性语义特征和理性语义以外的其
它语义特征 。 这些特征决定了一个词与
另一个词的结合是常规结合还是反常规
结合 。 以 Absolutely为例,
In her anger,she absolutely screamed at
him.
*In her anger,she absolutely spoke to
him.
Absolutely与 scream搭配是规约搭配,
它与 speak的搭配是非常规搭配, 这是
因为 absolutely作为强调语修饰动词时
在它的语义特征中常要求它的谓体具
有某种,夸张,的语义特征 。
我们再看 rightly与 know的搭配 。 Rightly具
有, 指说话人, 这一语义特征 。 比如在 I
don?t rightly know这句话中, 有一些表示
歉意的意思, 这只能适用于说话人；我们
从来不说 You don?t rightly know,但是我
们可以说 He didn?t rightly know,意思是
,他说他并不知道, 。 这里在从句中的
,他, 就是说话人 。
Judge是不可分等级词, 它的语义特征之
一就是 [… -gradable],因此在搭配语义上
与 very much不兼容, 但是 misjudge却是可
分等级的, 含有 [… +gradable]的语义特征,
因为 misjudge表示判断的结果, 并且也有
评估含义, 因此与 very much在搭配语义
上是兼容的 。 如：
*He very much judged the situation
*He badly（ 作为强势语 ） misjudged
the situation.
He very much misjudged the situation.
He badly misjudged the situation.
要注意的是若把 以上句子中的, badly”
理解为方式状语或结果状语, 那么它
必须位于句末位置上, 如：
He judged the situation badly.
在此用法上与 judge和 misjudge相类似的词
还有：
calculate miscalculate
estimate, overestimate,underestimate
represent misrepresent
behave misbehave
manage mismanage
在语音方面, 语言的超音位特征将
影响到词与词之间的搭配意义 。 例
如：
26) I like the fellow.
27) I like the person.
从 like,fellow以及 person的语义特征来分
析, like与 fellow和 person在理念语义上是
相容的。用 Leech的话来说，也就是它们
的结合可以从其它语义范畴中得到解释，
因此不属于搭配语义研究的范畴。但是
孤立地研究一个句子是否属于搭配语义
很难具有说服力，试比较：
28）
like
I
the
fellow.
29）
like
I
the
person.
当我们赋予以上例句相同的超
音位特征时，我们会发现例 28）
中包含着这样一层含义：, 尽
管别人可能不喜欢他，但我喜
欢他, 。这一层含义是例 29）
所不具有的。
我们还可以发现如果用 guy,man,girl,
woman,bastard 替代例 28） 中的 fellow，
以上含义仍然存在；但是如果我们用
gentleman,lady,Elizabeth,person等词
去替换 fellow,以上含义就会消失 。 这
种词的结合导致的含义差别不是我们
从理念语义或 Leech意义上的其它联想
语义所能解决的, 因此, 在讨论搭配
语义时不应忽视语音的作用 。
超音位特征对语义搭配的影响在英语
中是司空见惯的 。 例如：
He is a French teacher.
孤立地来看 French teacher,我们很
难判别 French在与 teacher搭配时是什
么意思 。
但是在特定超音位的语境中，当我们赋
予 French一个主重音,Teacher一个次
重音，这时,He is a French teacher
就有了明确的意义，即：他是一位法语
教师。
A ˊFrench,teacher teaches French.
如果我们赋予 French一个次重音，
teacher一个主重音，这时 He is a
French teacher中的 French表示法
国国籍：
A,French ˊteacher is French.
Old,new,pure,wrong在与名词搭配
时有时并不直接描绘名词所表示的
对象, 常常是在转意的基础上与名
词构成语义关联 。 在语音上, 重音
常常落在形容词上, 试比较：
my ˊ old,friend (old,long known or long
familiar) 不可以转换成,
*My friend is old.
my ˊ new,friend 不可以转换成,
*My friend is new.
a ˊ pure,scientist 不可以转换成,
* The scientist is pure.
theˊ wrong,applicant 不可以转换成,
*The applicant is wrong.
词与词的搭配不仅涉及到词与词在意义
上的相容关系，也受到词的语法语义的
限制。这里所说的语法语义不只是传统
的词在“数”、“时”、“格”等方面
的意义，而是词在句中的分配位置，或
它能在句法中占有的空间。相同的词在
与不同的词结合时，它所能占据的句法
空间是不一样的。
换句话说, 它们所要求的语言语境可能
是不一样的 。 以 Badly为例, badly与动
词 treat语义之间存在相容关系并不一定
导致可接受的搭配 。 从共现的角度来看
,与 treat共现的词可能是一些表示 treat
方式词,badly是其中之一：
* They very badly treated me.
They treated me very badly.
They were badly treated.
They were treated badly.
从以上 badly的句法功能来看, 它充当了方
式附加状语的功能, 在主动句中, 当方式
附加状语是信息的中心, 且是动词的必具
性状语, 它就只能处于句末的位置 。 在被
动句中, badly所占的句法空间比较自由,
可紧占据 treat前位, 也可紧占据 treat后位 。
Well作为方式状语时, 如果它是动词的
必具性状语, 那么它必须处在句末的位
置上, 如：
He put the point well.
*He well put the point.
如果它不是动词的必具性方式状语,
它就既可以位于句末位置上, 也可
以位于情态动词与实意动词之间,
如：
I can understand your point well.
I can well understand your point.
当 across 作为方
向或目标语状语
成为谓体的附加
状语时, 在肯定
句中, across 可
以移至句首, 如：
Across:
Across the field,
we walked，
carrying heavy
equipment.
We walked across
the field,carrying
heavy equipment.
但是在否定句中,
由于这类状语往往
是否定的焦点, 所
以在否定句中,
across引导的方向
或目标附加状语通
常都不跳出否定结
构范围之外, 如：
They didn?t walk across the field,carrying
heavy equipment.
*Across the field,they didn?t walk,
carrying heavy equipment.
当 towards作为方向或
目标语状语成为谓体
的附加状语时, 在肯
定句中, towards可以
移至句首, 如：
Towards the fort,the
s old ie rs m a rc he d,
但是在否定句中,
由于这类状语往往
是否定的焦点, 所
以在否定句中,
towards引导的方向
或目标附加状语通
常都不跳出否定结
构范围之外, 如：
The soldiers didn?t march
towards the fort.
*Towards the fort,
the soldiers didn?t march.
在英语中 go经常带起
一个方向或目标附加
状语和一个来源附加
状语,如,
He went to America from Japan.
Go
当方向或目标附加状语与来源附加
状语同时出现时,其中的来源附加状
语可以移至句首,如,
From Japan,he
went to America.
但是在方向或目标
附加状语和来源附
加状语同时出现时,
其中的方向或目标
附加状语不可以移
至句首,如,
*To America,he went
from Japan.
词的搭配意义的研究最终是对词的
共现的研究, 由于语义不是有和无
的关系, 而是或多或少的关系, 这
就使得词与词之间的搭配关系也是
一种盖然的关系 。
有时这种盖然的关系会受到其他语
言语境的影响。以 worth while为例，
Leech可能认为 worth与 while的共现
不应归入搭配语义范畴，因为
worth 与 while在理念语义上是相容
的。
即使两个词在理念语义、内涵语
义、社会语义、情感语义、反映
语义等方面具有相容性也不意味
着它们的共现就是可接受的。
英语允许 worth与 while之间插入一个物
主代词，事实上很多字典把 worth one?s
while作为一种搭配被固定了下来，但
是并不是所有的物主代词或名词所有格
形式都可以自然处于 one?s这一空位。
换句话说，由 于 one?s语言语境的存在使
得 worth与 while的共现产生了度的差异。
在 worth one?s while这一搭配中, your是
连接 worth和 while最常见, 最自然的成
分, 而普通名词或专有名词的所有格形
式是最不可接受的, 如：
*It?s worth Brian?s while to learn a
second language.
*It?s worth a rich man?s while to help
the poor.
除了名词的所有格以外, 不定代词的
所有格形式也不可以占据 one?s空位 。
以下例句是不可接受的：
*Is it worth anybody?s while to take up
a challenging job?
就物主代词而言，处于 one?s空位可
接受性最低的是 my,对于以英语为母
语的人来说，他们更倾向于把 worth
your while作为自然的搭配，尽管 his
的使用频率比其它物主代词要高，但
低于 your。
Acceptable unacceptable
your his their my anybody?s John?s
对词的搭配语义的研究还必须考虑语
用因素, 试比较：
We always found him cheerful.
We always found him glad.
符号?表示该句只有在特定的语境
中才是可接受的 。
以英语为母语的人不难发现, 在第一
句中 cheerful可以与 found和 him 自然结
合, 形成有意义的语义结合链, 而在第
二句中, found him glad 要成为有意义的
语义结合链, 就必须借助语境, 即交际
双方具有共有知识 。 这种共有知识就是
交际双方都知道导致 him高兴的原因 。
词与词的共现会受社会因素的影响：
Career woman,family man:
以英国为例，男女有着明确的社会分工。
传统的风俗是男人有着事业的追求，理应
是家庭中“挣面包的人”；而女人的职业
只能是在家庭伺候丈夫、孩子，做好男人
所需的各种后勤工作。对家庭中的男女传
统职能的划分在英语表达法, career
woman”和, family man”中也得以体现。
人们对独立词项, woman”和
,man”传统的理解分别是, 家庭
妇女, 和, 职业男性, 。 英语中
没有, family woman”和, career
man”表达法足以证明这一点 。 无
论是, career woman”,还是
,family man”,它们所蕴涵的
,职业女性, 和, 无职业男性,
的概念由多个词来承担, 从一个
侧面反映了在英国传统社会中,
他们不是主流 。
