Unit 5
Word Formation,Conversion
Conversion
Conversion is a main type of word-
formation assigning the base to a
different word class with no
change of form,For example,the
verb release is converted to the
noun release.
In t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e
conversion is unusually prominent
as a word-formation process,Of
course,conversion,like other
main types of word-formation,is
treated as a process now available
for extending the lexical resources
of t h e E ng l i s h l a ng u a g e,
There are two kinds of conversion:
full conversion and partial
conversion.
Full conversion is conversion as
already discussed above.
Partial conversion is conversion,
where a word of one word class
appears in a function which is
characteristic of another word class.
In s u c h s t r u c t u r e s as t h e
wealthy(wealthy people),the ignorant,
the kind,the wicked,etc.,the
adjective is partially converted to
noun status in that it is syntactically in
a position… characteristic of nouns
rather than adjective,But that is not
full conversion because one cannot
say:” saw two wealthies”,nor can
one s a y:” I s aw a w ea lt hy.”
The types of conversion contain
three major word classes,nouns,
verbs and additives,Conversion
from noun to verb and from verb to
noun are the most productive
categories.
Conversion can be classified into
four categories according to word
classes.
Conversion to noun:
There are two types of conversion
to noun.
1) De-verbal
This type includes the following
kinds.
The de-verbal nouns may be used:
1)to denote the state of mind or
sensation.
Desire:
v,To long for,to wish
n,strong longing,earnest wish
dismay:
v,To fill with dismay
n,strong feeling of fear and
hopelessness
doubt,v,To hesitate to believe
n,uncertainty of mind.
Love,v,To have strong affection
or deep tender feeling for.
n,warm,kind feeling;
fondness.
Smell,v,To be aware of through
the sense of smell.
n,that one of the five senses
special to the nose.
Taste,v,To be aware of the taste of
something.
n.sense by which flavour is
known.
Want:v,To require,to be in need
of
n.need
The deverbal nouns of this kind are
used statively to count or noncount
nouns
b) to denote an event or activity:
attempt v,to try,to make a start
at doing something
n,effort to do something.
Fall,v,To come or go down
freely
n,act of falling
hit,v,To give a blow
n,blow
laugh,v,To make sounds or
movements of the face
and body,showing
amusement,joy.
n,sound made in laughing,
act of laughing.
Release,v,To allow to go,to set
free.
n,releasing or being released.
Search,v,To examine,to look
carefully at.
n,act of searching
swim,v,To move the body through
water by using arms,legs,
fins,the tail,etc.
n,act or period of swimming
The deverbal nouns of this kind are
used dynamically.
c) as object of the given verb:
answer:
Foreign languages are taught
through questions and answers ( that
which is answered).
Bet:
I will lay you a bet( something is
laid,staked,or pledged typically
between two parties on the outcome of
a contest or a contingent issue)
Catch,
Her husband was a good catch
( that which is caught),They say
he?s got a fortune in the bank.
Find,
an important archaeological find
( that which is found.)
d) as subject of the given verb:
bore:
He became a bore( one that
causes boredom) at last.
cheat:
A cheat is a person who cheats.
coach:
A coach is a person who trains
athletes for contests.
e) as instrument of the given verb:
cover:
put the cover ( something with
which to cover things) on the kettle
and the water will boil.
Wrap:
The word,wrap”( a garment or piece
of material which is used as a covering)
as a noun is usually used in the plural
form,It means,shawl(s),rug(s),coat(s),
cloak(s),neckerchief(s),etc,?; use of
transparent film as a wrap ( material for
covering or packing something).
Wrench:
where is your wrench (spanner)?
f) as manner of the given verb:
walk:
I can know him at once by his walk
( manner of walking).
throw:
a spotlight with a throw of 500 feet
( manner of traveling).
lie,
the lie ( the way or position in
which something lies) of the land.
g) as place of the given verb:
divide:
a period marking the divide
( something that divides,especially
watershed) between two eras of
American history.
rise,
He sat at the top of a small rise
( an upward slope; small hill).
turn,
Take a turn to the right,please,A
path full of twists and turns ( a place
at which something turns,turns off
or turns back.
2) De-adjectival:
There is no very productive type
of adjective---noun conversion in
English,This conversion can be
explained in terms of a fixed
adjective plus noun phrase from
which the noun has been ellipted.
Typical examples are:
I?d like two pints of bitter,
please,( type of beer)
They ?re running in the final,(
the final race)
As a foot-baller,he is a natural.
( a naturally skilled player)
Daily( daily newspaper)
Comic (comic actor)
Regular ( regular customer)
Roast( roast beef)
Young marrieds ( married people)
Annual ( annual book or magazine)
Bimonthly ( bimonthly magazine)
Biweekly ( biweekly magazine)
Weekly ( weekly magazine)
Monthly ( monthly magazine)
Perennial ( perennial plant)
Conversion to verb:
There are two types of conversion to verb.
1) Denominal:
This type has seven kinds.
A) to put in N:
Bottle,to put into a bottle
Corner,to put into a difficult position
Position,to put someone or something
in…
Floor,to put a floor in a building
B) to give N or to provide with N…
coat,to give a coat to
commission,to give a
commission to
mask,to give a mask to
plaster,to give a plaster to
C) to deprive of N:
core,to remove the core from
skin,to take the skin off
peel,to take the skin off fruit,
vegetables etc.
Gut,to take the guts out of
D) to do with N;
knife,to cut or stab with a knife
brake,to stop by means of a
brake
finger,to touch with the fingers
E) to be or act as N with respect:
father,to act as a father to
nurse,to act as a nurse to
pilot,to act as a pilot to
F) to make or change…into N:
cash,to change into cash
group,to make into a group
G) to send or go by N:
mail,to send by mail
telegraph,to send news,etc,by
telegraph
bicycle,to go by bicycle
boat,to travel by motor-car
canoe,
to travel by canoe
Most of the verbs in this type
are transitive verbs,with the
exception of a few words.
2) De-adjectival:
This type has two kinds.
a)(transitive verb) to make
adj,or to make more adj.
Calm,to make calm
Dirty,to make or become
dirty
Soundproof,to make
soundproof
Lower,to make less high
This type can be used as
transitive verbs and intransitive
verbs:
Don?t dirty your hands.
White shoes dirty very easily
b)(intransitive verb) to become adj.
Dry,to become dry
Empty,to become empty
Narrow,to become narrow
Yellow,to become yellow
Grey,to become grey
Blue,to become blue
This kind can also be used as
transitive verbs and intransitive
verbs:
Dry your wet hands.
The wet clothes will soon dry in
the sun.
Sometimes a phrasal verb is
derived from an adjective by
the addition of a particle:
Smooth out,to make smooth
Calm down,to become calm
Sober up,to become sober
Sometimes a verb is derived from an
adjective plus a suffix:
Blacken,to become black
Black,to make black
Blacken and black used as verbs
are the same in meaning and
function.
C,Conversion to adjective:
This category has only one type.
Denominal:
A brick garage,The garage is brick.
Worcester porcelain,This porcelain
is Worcester.
A very Oxbridge accent,His accent
is Oxbridge.
Minor categories of conversion:
There are three less minor
categories of conversion,chiefly used
informally.
1)Conversion to nouns:
This type has three kinds.
A) conversion from closed-system words
to nouns.
There are two postulated major word
classes in the English language,open
class and closed class,namely,open-
system words and closed-system words.
An open class is one whose membership
is in principle indefinite or unlimited,
whereas a closed class is one whose
membership is fixed or limited.
New items are constantly being added to
the open class,as new ideas,inventions,
etc,appear,Nouns,verbs,adjective and
adverbs are open-class items,that is,open-
system words,New items are not regularly
added to the closed class as they are in the
case of open-class items,Pronouns,
prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.
A r e a l l c l o s e d - s y s t e m w o r d s,
Examples are:
But(i.e,the word but) contains three
letters.
His speech contains too many ifs and buts.
The book is a must for students of science.
It tells you about the how and the why of
flight.
B)Conversion from affixes to
nouns:
Very occasionally,an affix may
be converted to nouns,e.g.
This is the age of isms
The pros and cons.
C) Conversion from phrases to
nouns:
Phrases or combinations of
more than one word,may
sometimes be reduced to noun
status by conversion,e.g.
Whenever I gamble,my horse
is one of the also-rans,( one of
the horses which also ran? but
was not among the winners.)
2)Conversion to verbs
This conversion is conversion
from closed-class words and non-
lexical items to verbs,It is chiefly
used informally:
They downed tools in protest.
She will off and do her own thing.
If you uh-uh again,I won?t go on
with my story.
3)Conversion to adjectives:
This conversion is the conversion from
phrases to adjectives.
An up-in-the-air feeling,I feel very up in
the air ( with reference to cheerful spirits)
An upper-class manner,His manner is
very upper-class.
It is all to nothing that they will succeed.
Conversion may be reclassified into
three types according to the same word-
classes; the change of secondary word
class—nouns,the change of secondary
word class---verbs and the change of
secondary word class---adjectives,They
parallel the major conversions already
discussed above.
The change of secondary word class---
nouns:
This type has four kinds.
1) noncount nouns-? count nouns:
a) a unit of N:
The waiter has served thirty teas
from 4 o?clock.( a small meal,usually
served in the afternoon with a cup of
tea.)
Two coffees ( two cups of coffee)
Two sugars ( two lumps of sugar)
b)a kind of N:
Some paints are more lasting than others.
This is a better bread than the one I baked
yesterday.
c) an instance of N,( with abstract nouns)
May I ask a favour of you?
The difficulties of English grammar;
A home truth ( a fact about someone
which is unpleasant for him but true.)
Small kindnesses
A miserable failure
A great injustice
Word Formation,Conversion
Conversion
Conversion is a main type of word-
formation assigning the base to a
different word class with no
change of form,For example,the
verb release is converted to the
noun release.
In t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e
conversion is unusually prominent
as a word-formation process,Of
course,conversion,like other
main types of word-formation,is
treated as a process now available
for extending the lexical resources
of t h e E ng l i s h l a ng u a g e,
There are two kinds of conversion:
full conversion and partial
conversion.
Full conversion is conversion as
already discussed above.
Partial conversion is conversion,
where a word of one word class
appears in a function which is
characteristic of another word class.
In s u c h s t r u c t u r e s as t h e
wealthy(wealthy people),the ignorant,
the kind,the wicked,etc.,the
adjective is partially converted to
noun status in that it is syntactically in
a position… characteristic of nouns
rather than adjective,But that is not
full conversion because one cannot
say:” saw two wealthies”,nor can
one s a y:” I s aw a w ea lt hy.”
The types of conversion contain
three major word classes,nouns,
verbs and additives,Conversion
from noun to verb and from verb to
noun are the most productive
categories.
Conversion can be classified into
four categories according to word
classes.
Conversion to noun:
There are two types of conversion
to noun.
1) De-verbal
This type includes the following
kinds.
The de-verbal nouns may be used:
1)to denote the state of mind or
sensation.
Desire:
v,To long for,to wish
n,strong longing,earnest wish
dismay:
v,To fill with dismay
n,strong feeling of fear and
hopelessness
doubt,v,To hesitate to believe
n,uncertainty of mind.
Love,v,To have strong affection
or deep tender feeling for.
n,warm,kind feeling;
fondness.
Smell,v,To be aware of through
the sense of smell.
n,that one of the five senses
special to the nose.
Taste,v,To be aware of the taste of
something.
n.sense by which flavour is
known.
Want:v,To require,to be in need
of
n.need
The deverbal nouns of this kind are
used statively to count or noncount
nouns
b) to denote an event or activity:
attempt v,to try,to make a start
at doing something
n,effort to do something.
Fall,v,To come or go down
freely
n,act of falling
hit,v,To give a blow
n,blow
laugh,v,To make sounds or
movements of the face
and body,showing
amusement,joy.
n,sound made in laughing,
act of laughing.
Release,v,To allow to go,to set
free.
n,releasing or being released.
Search,v,To examine,to look
carefully at.
n,act of searching
swim,v,To move the body through
water by using arms,legs,
fins,the tail,etc.
n,act or period of swimming
The deverbal nouns of this kind are
used dynamically.
c) as object of the given verb:
answer:
Foreign languages are taught
through questions and answers ( that
which is answered).
Bet:
I will lay you a bet( something is
laid,staked,or pledged typically
between two parties on the outcome of
a contest or a contingent issue)
Catch,
Her husband was a good catch
( that which is caught),They say
he?s got a fortune in the bank.
Find,
an important archaeological find
( that which is found.)
d) as subject of the given verb:
bore:
He became a bore( one that
causes boredom) at last.
cheat:
A cheat is a person who cheats.
coach:
A coach is a person who trains
athletes for contests.
e) as instrument of the given verb:
cover:
put the cover ( something with
which to cover things) on the kettle
and the water will boil.
Wrap:
The word,wrap”( a garment or piece
of material which is used as a covering)
as a noun is usually used in the plural
form,It means,shawl(s),rug(s),coat(s),
cloak(s),neckerchief(s),etc,?; use of
transparent film as a wrap ( material for
covering or packing something).
Wrench:
where is your wrench (spanner)?
f) as manner of the given verb:
walk:
I can know him at once by his walk
( manner of walking).
throw:
a spotlight with a throw of 500 feet
( manner of traveling).
lie,
the lie ( the way or position in
which something lies) of the land.
g) as place of the given verb:
divide:
a period marking the divide
( something that divides,especially
watershed) between two eras of
American history.
rise,
He sat at the top of a small rise
( an upward slope; small hill).
turn,
Take a turn to the right,please,A
path full of twists and turns ( a place
at which something turns,turns off
or turns back.
2) De-adjectival:
There is no very productive type
of adjective---noun conversion in
English,This conversion can be
explained in terms of a fixed
adjective plus noun phrase from
which the noun has been ellipted.
Typical examples are:
I?d like two pints of bitter,
please,( type of beer)
They ?re running in the final,(
the final race)
As a foot-baller,he is a natural.
( a naturally skilled player)
Daily( daily newspaper)
Comic (comic actor)
Regular ( regular customer)
Roast( roast beef)
Young marrieds ( married people)
Annual ( annual book or magazine)
Bimonthly ( bimonthly magazine)
Biweekly ( biweekly magazine)
Weekly ( weekly magazine)
Monthly ( monthly magazine)
Perennial ( perennial plant)
Conversion to verb:
There are two types of conversion to verb.
1) Denominal:
This type has seven kinds.
A) to put in N:
Bottle,to put into a bottle
Corner,to put into a difficult position
Position,to put someone or something
in…
Floor,to put a floor in a building
B) to give N or to provide with N…
coat,to give a coat to
commission,to give a
commission to
mask,to give a mask to
plaster,to give a plaster to
C) to deprive of N:
core,to remove the core from
skin,to take the skin off
peel,to take the skin off fruit,
vegetables etc.
Gut,to take the guts out of
D) to do with N;
knife,to cut or stab with a knife
brake,to stop by means of a
brake
finger,to touch with the fingers
E) to be or act as N with respect:
father,to act as a father to
nurse,to act as a nurse to
pilot,to act as a pilot to
F) to make or change…into N:
cash,to change into cash
group,to make into a group
G) to send or go by N:
mail,to send by mail
telegraph,to send news,etc,by
telegraph
bicycle,to go by bicycle
boat,to travel by motor-car
canoe,
to travel by canoe
Most of the verbs in this type
are transitive verbs,with the
exception of a few words.
2) De-adjectival:
This type has two kinds.
a)(transitive verb) to make
adj,or to make more adj.
Calm,to make calm
Dirty,to make or become
dirty
Soundproof,to make
soundproof
Lower,to make less high
This type can be used as
transitive verbs and intransitive
verbs:
Don?t dirty your hands.
White shoes dirty very easily
b)(intransitive verb) to become adj.
Dry,to become dry
Empty,to become empty
Narrow,to become narrow
Yellow,to become yellow
Grey,to become grey
Blue,to become blue
This kind can also be used as
transitive verbs and intransitive
verbs:
Dry your wet hands.
The wet clothes will soon dry in
the sun.
Sometimes a phrasal verb is
derived from an adjective by
the addition of a particle:
Smooth out,to make smooth
Calm down,to become calm
Sober up,to become sober
Sometimes a verb is derived from an
adjective plus a suffix:
Blacken,to become black
Black,to make black
Blacken and black used as verbs
are the same in meaning and
function.
C,Conversion to adjective:
This category has only one type.
Denominal:
A brick garage,The garage is brick.
Worcester porcelain,This porcelain
is Worcester.
A very Oxbridge accent,His accent
is Oxbridge.
Minor categories of conversion:
There are three less minor
categories of conversion,chiefly used
informally.
1)Conversion to nouns:
This type has three kinds.
A) conversion from closed-system words
to nouns.
There are two postulated major word
classes in the English language,open
class and closed class,namely,open-
system words and closed-system words.
An open class is one whose membership
is in principle indefinite or unlimited,
whereas a closed class is one whose
membership is fixed or limited.
New items are constantly being added to
the open class,as new ideas,inventions,
etc,appear,Nouns,verbs,adjective and
adverbs are open-class items,that is,open-
system words,New items are not regularly
added to the closed class as they are in the
case of open-class items,Pronouns,
prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.
A r e a l l c l o s e d - s y s t e m w o r d s,
Examples are:
But(i.e,the word but) contains three
letters.
His speech contains too many ifs and buts.
The book is a must for students of science.
It tells you about the how and the why of
flight.
B)Conversion from affixes to
nouns:
Very occasionally,an affix may
be converted to nouns,e.g.
This is the age of isms
The pros and cons.
C) Conversion from phrases to
nouns:
Phrases or combinations of
more than one word,may
sometimes be reduced to noun
status by conversion,e.g.
Whenever I gamble,my horse
is one of the also-rans,( one of
the horses which also ran? but
was not among the winners.)
2)Conversion to verbs
This conversion is conversion
from closed-class words and non-
lexical items to verbs,It is chiefly
used informally:
They downed tools in protest.
She will off and do her own thing.
If you uh-uh again,I won?t go on
with my story.
3)Conversion to adjectives:
This conversion is the conversion from
phrases to adjectives.
An up-in-the-air feeling,I feel very up in
the air ( with reference to cheerful spirits)
An upper-class manner,His manner is
very upper-class.
It is all to nothing that they will succeed.
Conversion may be reclassified into
three types according to the same word-
classes; the change of secondary word
class—nouns,the change of secondary
word class---verbs and the change of
secondary word class---adjectives,They
parallel the major conversions already
discussed above.
The change of secondary word class---
nouns:
This type has four kinds.
1) noncount nouns-? count nouns:
a) a unit of N:
The waiter has served thirty teas
from 4 o?clock.( a small meal,usually
served in the afternoon with a cup of
tea.)
Two coffees ( two cups of coffee)
Two sugars ( two lumps of sugar)
b)a kind of N:
Some paints are more lasting than others.
This is a better bread than the one I baked
yesterday.
c) an instance of N,( with abstract nouns)
May I ask a favour of you?
The difficulties of English grammar;
A home truth ( a fact about someone
which is unpleasant for him but true.)
Small kindnesses
A miserable failure
A great injustice
