Unit 13
Restriction,Elevation and
Degradation of Meaning
R es trict io n o f m ean in g m ean s th at a wo r d o f
wi d e m ean in g acq u ires a n ar r o wer,s p ecia l is ed
s en s e wh ich is ap p l icab l e t o o n l y o n e o f th e
o b ject s i t h ad p r ev io u s ly d en o ted,Restriction of Meaning
Examples
liquor
Old Meaning Specialized meaning
liquid alcoholic drink
example
meat
Old Meaning Specialized Meaning
food Flesh of animals
word Old meaning Specialization
disease discomfort illness
poison drink Poisonous drink
wife woman married woman
accident event unlucky event
girl A child A female child
word Old meaning Specialization
starve die Die of hunger
stink Any smell Bad smell
success Result a good result
corpse
a human or
animal body
living or dead
a dead body
esp,of a
human being
现代英语中把日常生活用语转用
到科技方面，这也是词义缩小的
一种现象。
A clean room 和 a
white room均为日常
生活用语，现指用于
精密零件制造的“绝
尘室”
“A clean room” or, a white
room”,increasingly becomes shop talk.
清洁室或称白室正日益变成专家们
的行话。
Elevation of Meaning
Words often rise from a humble
beginning to a position of greater
importance,This change is called
elevation of meaning.
Pioneer,foot soldier who cleared the
way for any army by falling trees,etc.
A person who goes before,
preparing the way for others,
as a scientist doing
exploratory work
Fond,foolish
Tender and affectionate
minister
? Old,an attendant
? New,a person at
the head of a
department of a
state.
marshall
Originally:
A horse tender
Present Meaning:
Officer of highest rank
craftsman
Old,a person good at
cheating
Now,a man who does
a skilled job,usu,
with hands
shrewd
Old meaning,
wicked;
malicious
Now:
keen-witted;
clever or sharp
in practical affairs
nimble
? Old meaning:
quick at stealing
? present meaning:
quick of
comprehension
见 125页
Elevation of Meaning
Degradation of meaning
Words with a commendatory
meaning may become ones
with a derogatory sense,This
is called degradation of
meaning or deterioration
Four Kinds of Degradation of Meaning
A,A word falls into disrepute because
of social prejudice
Example
Villain
old meaning:a farmer
present Meaning:
a man guilty of
evil deeds
clown
Old meaning,a peasant
present Meaning:
a man who is clumsy and
behaves stupidly
wench
? Old meaning:
a country girl
? present meaning:
a girl of loose
character
boor
Old meaning:
a farmhand
present meaning:one
who is rough,impolite
and clumsy
churl
? Old meaning:
a farmhand
? present meaning:
one who is rude
and unfriendly
B,A word becomes less respectable
because of euphemism
Examples 见 127页
C,Middle terms which are neutral in
meaning and take on favorable or
unfavorable meaning according to
context
Examples见 128页
Fortune,is a middle term,because it
may be either good or bad but the
adjective fortunate has a positive
value,So with the word luck,The
word refers to good or bad luck,
especially to good luck,But the
adjective lucky only denotes
,having or bringing good luck”.
D,Sometimes a word shows deterioration
in some of its uses,but maintain itself in
others.
execute
To kill sb,as a
lawful punishment
To carry out an order,
a plan,a piece of work
4-2-3
Semantic Changes from the Literal
Use of words to Their Figurative Use
1,Metaphor
We k n o w t h a t
words are used in
two ways,literally
and figuratively.
When used literally,
the y have t he ir
natural and usual
mea ning, W he n
used figuratively,
t h e y h a v e a
suggested meaning.
!
A simile is a figure of speech
which makes a comparison
between two unlike elements,
having at least one point of
resemblance in appearance,
quality,action or effect.
A metaphor,like a
simile,also makes a
comparison between
two unlike elements,but
unlike a simile,this
comparison is implied
rather than stated.
Metaphor?
There are three major groups of
metaphors according to function
and character:
A,Anthropomorphic metaphors
B,Animal metaphors
C,Synaesthetic metaphors
A,Anthropomorphic metaphors
Many inanimate
o b j e c t s a r e
compared to the
p a r t s of t h e
hu m a n b od y.
the eye of a needle 针眼
the eye of a potato马铃薯的芽眼
the eye of the hurricane 风眼
the eye of a flower 花心
the eye of a peacock’s tail孔雀翎斑
the eye of the revolution 革命中心
参见 p.32 for More Examples
B,Animal metaphors
A great many inanimate
objects,including various
instruments,machines
and parts of machines are
called after an animal.
Cat-o’-nine-tails; 九尾鞭；香蒲
Cat-ice,
thin ice unsupported by water 薄冰
Catmint or catnip 猫薄荷
Catlap,slops,tea,etc,稀薄饮料
Another large group of animal
names can be transferred into
words indicating persons.
An ass,a stupid
foolish person
A pig:a dirty,greedy or ill-
mannered person
A mouse,a person,esp,A woman,
who is quiet and timid
A goose,a
silly person,
esp,female
A cat,a nasty person
A rat,a low worthless disloyal man
A lion,a famous and important
person
A fox,a person who deceives
others by means of clever tricks
A tiger,a person like such an animal
in fierceness,courage,etc.
An owl,a wise-looking dullard.
A mule,a stupid or obstinate person
A dark horse,a person whose
abilities are hidden
A mule,a stupid or obstinate person
An ape,a person who copies the
behaviour of others
A monkey,a child who is full of
annoying playfulness and trick
A parrot,a person who repeats,
often without understanding,the
words or actions of another
C,Synaesthetic metaphors
They are metaphors used to
refer to direct association
between the form and the
meaning of language,This
type of metaphor is based on
the similarity of two things.
warm or cold temperature
warm or cold voice
loud music
loud colours
sweet tea
sweet sound or music
piercing wind
piercing sound
a grave face
grave news
a stormy day
a stormy quarrel
stony ground
a stony heart
dirty hand
a dirty night
A number of nouns,adjectives,
or verbs in English can be used
as metaphors.
1) The use of a Noun as a Metaphor:
A ray of hope
a grain of truth
a shadow of doubt
a flight of fancy
the fire of passion
2) the use of an adjective as a metaphor
Bitter enemy
murderous heat
iron courage
3) the use of a verb as a metaphor:
Time flies.
Time presses.
He bridles his anger.
Restriction,Elevation and
Degradation of Meaning
R es trict io n o f m ean in g m ean s th at a wo r d o f
wi d e m ean in g acq u ires a n ar r o wer,s p ecia l is ed
s en s e wh ich is ap p l icab l e t o o n l y o n e o f th e
o b ject s i t h ad p r ev io u s ly d en o ted,Restriction of Meaning
Examples
liquor
Old Meaning Specialized meaning
liquid alcoholic drink
example
meat
Old Meaning Specialized Meaning
food Flesh of animals
word Old meaning Specialization
disease discomfort illness
poison drink Poisonous drink
wife woman married woman
accident event unlucky event
girl A child A female child
word Old meaning Specialization
starve die Die of hunger
stink Any smell Bad smell
success Result a good result
corpse
a human or
animal body
living or dead
a dead body
esp,of a
human being
现代英语中把日常生活用语转用
到科技方面，这也是词义缩小的
一种现象。
A clean room 和 a
white room均为日常
生活用语，现指用于
精密零件制造的“绝
尘室”
“A clean room” or, a white
room”,increasingly becomes shop talk.
清洁室或称白室正日益变成专家们
的行话。
Elevation of Meaning
Words often rise from a humble
beginning to a position of greater
importance,This change is called
elevation of meaning.
Pioneer,foot soldier who cleared the
way for any army by falling trees,etc.
A person who goes before,
preparing the way for others,
as a scientist doing
exploratory work
Fond,foolish
Tender and affectionate
minister
? Old,an attendant
? New,a person at
the head of a
department of a
state.
marshall
Originally:
A horse tender
Present Meaning:
Officer of highest rank
craftsman
Old,a person good at
cheating
Now,a man who does
a skilled job,usu,
with hands
shrewd
Old meaning,
wicked;
malicious
Now:
keen-witted;
clever or sharp
in practical affairs
nimble
? Old meaning:
quick at stealing
? present meaning:
quick of
comprehension
见 125页
Elevation of Meaning
Degradation of meaning
Words with a commendatory
meaning may become ones
with a derogatory sense,This
is called degradation of
meaning or deterioration
Four Kinds of Degradation of Meaning
A,A word falls into disrepute because
of social prejudice
Example
Villain
old meaning:a farmer
present Meaning:
a man guilty of
evil deeds
clown
Old meaning,a peasant
present Meaning:
a man who is clumsy and
behaves stupidly
wench
? Old meaning:
a country girl
? present meaning:
a girl of loose
character
boor
Old meaning:
a farmhand
present meaning:one
who is rough,impolite
and clumsy
churl
? Old meaning:
a farmhand
? present meaning:
one who is rude
and unfriendly
B,A word becomes less respectable
because of euphemism
Examples 见 127页
C,Middle terms which are neutral in
meaning and take on favorable or
unfavorable meaning according to
context
Examples见 128页
Fortune,is a middle term,because it
may be either good or bad but the
adjective fortunate has a positive
value,So with the word luck,The
word refers to good or bad luck,
especially to good luck,But the
adjective lucky only denotes
,having or bringing good luck”.
D,Sometimes a word shows deterioration
in some of its uses,but maintain itself in
others.
execute
To kill sb,as a
lawful punishment
To carry out an order,
a plan,a piece of work
4-2-3
Semantic Changes from the Literal
Use of words to Their Figurative Use
1,Metaphor
We k n o w t h a t
words are used in
two ways,literally
and figuratively.
When used literally,
the y have t he ir
natural and usual
mea ning, W he n
used figuratively,
t h e y h a v e a
suggested meaning.
!
A simile is a figure of speech
which makes a comparison
between two unlike elements,
having at least one point of
resemblance in appearance,
quality,action or effect.
A metaphor,like a
simile,also makes a
comparison between
two unlike elements,but
unlike a simile,this
comparison is implied
rather than stated.
Metaphor?
There are three major groups of
metaphors according to function
and character:
A,Anthropomorphic metaphors
B,Animal metaphors
C,Synaesthetic metaphors
A,Anthropomorphic metaphors
Many inanimate
o b j e c t s a r e
compared to the
p a r t s of t h e
hu m a n b od y.
the eye of a needle 针眼
the eye of a potato马铃薯的芽眼
the eye of the hurricane 风眼
the eye of a flower 花心
the eye of a peacock’s tail孔雀翎斑
the eye of the revolution 革命中心
参见 p.32 for More Examples
B,Animal metaphors
A great many inanimate
objects,including various
instruments,machines
and parts of machines are
called after an animal.
Cat-o’-nine-tails; 九尾鞭；香蒲
Cat-ice,
thin ice unsupported by water 薄冰
Catmint or catnip 猫薄荷
Catlap,slops,tea,etc,稀薄饮料
Another large group of animal
names can be transferred into
words indicating persons.
An ass,a stupid
foolish person
A pig:a dirty,greedy or ill-
mannered person
A mouse,a person,esp,A woman,
who is quiet and timid
A goose,a
silly person,
esp,female
A cat,a nasty person
A rat,a low worthless disloyal man
A lion,a famous and important
person
A fox,a person who deceives
others by means of clever tricks
A tiger,a person like such an animal
in fierceness,courage,etc.
An owl,a wise-looking dullard.
A mule,a stupid or obstinate person
A dark horse,a person whose
abilities are hidden
A mule,a stupid or obstinate person
An ape,a person who copies the
behaviour of others
A monkey,a child who is full of
annoying playfulness and trick
A parrot,a person who repeats,
often without understanding,the
words or actions of another
C,Synaesthetic metaphors
They are metaphors used to
refer to direct association
between the form and the
meaning of language,This
type of metaphor is based on
the similarity of two things.
warm or cold temperature
warm or cold voice
loud music
loud colours
sweet tea
sweet sound or music
piercing wind
piercing sound
a grave face
grave news
a stormy day
a stormy quarrel
stony ground
a stony heart
dirty hand
a dirty night
A number of nouns,adjectives,
or verbs in English can be used
as metaphors.
1) The use of a Noun as a Metaphor:
A ray of hope
a grain of truth
a shadow of doubt
a flight of fancy
the fire of passion
2) the use of an adjective as a metaphor
Bitter enemy
murderous heat
iron courage
3) the use of a verb as a metaphor:
Time flies.
Time presses.
He bridles his anger.
