Contents
1 Fermentation Pilot Plant ........................................ 1
Yujiro Harada, Kuniaki Sakata, Seiji Sat0 and Shinsaku
Takayama
PROLOGUE (by Yujiro Harada) ................................................. 1
1 .O MICROBLAL FERMENTATION (by Kuniaki Sakato) ........ 2
........... 3
........... 3
1.1 Fermentation Pilot Plant ......
1.2 Bioreactors and Culture Techniques
1.3 Application of Computer Control and
1.4 Scale-up ...................................................
1.5 Bioreactors for Recombinant DNA Technolo
References (Section 1) .......................................
2.0 MAMMALIAN CELL CULTURE SYSTEM (by
2.1 Introduction ............................... ......................... 25
2.2 Culture Media ........................................
2.3 Microcarrier Culture and General Contro
2.4 Perfision Culture Systems as a New High Density
for Microbial Processes ........................
Sensing Technologies for Fermentation Process ............... 8
Culture Technology ....................................................... 3 1
2.5 Sedimentation Column Perfision Systems ...................... 33
2.6 High Density Culture Using a Perfision Culture System
with Sedimentation Column.
2.7 Acknowledgment .................
References and Bibliography (Se
xiii
xiv Contents
3.0 BIOREACTORS FOR PLANT CELL TISSUE AND
ORGAN CULTURES (by Shinsaku Takayama) ......
3.1 Background of the Technique-Historical Overview ..... .4 1
3.2 Media Formulations .............................
3.3 General Applications ...........................
3.4 Bioreactors-Hardware Configuration..
3.5 Bioreactor Size .....................................
3.6 Culture Period ......................................
3.7 Aeration and Agitation .......................
3.8 Microbial Contamination ....................
3.9 Characteristics ......................................................
3.10 Manipulation ...................................
3.11 Scale-up Problems ..
3.12 Bioprocess Measure
References (Section 3) ...............................................
.................... 55
2 Fermentation Design ............................................. 67
Allan C. Soderberg
1 .O INTRODUCTION .....................................
2.0 FERMENTATION DEPARTMENT, EQUI
AND SPACE REQUIREMENTS ...............
2.1 The Microbiological
2.2 Analytical S
2.3 Production:
2.4 Media Preparation or Batchin
2.5 The Seed Fermenter Layout ..
2.7 Nutrient Feed Tanks .............
2.8 Sterile Filters ...........
2.9 Air Compressors ................
2.10 Valves (To Maintain Steril
2.11 Pumps 78
2.12 Cooling Equipment ..........
2.13 Environmental Control ...................................
2.6 The Main Fermenter Layout .... ................... 74
3 .O GENERAL DESIGN DATA ..........
4.0 CONTINUOUS STERILIZERS .................
4.1 A Justification for Continuo
4.2 Support Equipment for a St
4.3 The Sterilizing Section .....................
4.4 The Cooling Section .......................................
......................... 79
5.0 FERMENTER COOLING ......
Contents xv
6.0 THE DESIGN OF LARGE FERMENTERS
(BASED ON AERATION) ................................................. 99
6.2 Fermenter Height ......................................................... 100
6.3 Mixing Horsepower by Aeration .................................. 10 1
by Agitators and Jets ................................................... 107
6.7 Other Examples of Jet Airkiquid Mixing .................... 109
6.8 Mechanical Versus Non-mechanical Agitation ............. 1 10
7.0 TROUBLE SHOOTING IN A FERMENTATION PLANT 11 1
8.0 GENERAL COMMENTS ................................................. 1 19
REFERENCES ................................................................... 120
6.1 Agitator Effectiveness ................................................... 99
6.4 Air Sparger Design ...................................................... 107
6.5 Comparison of Shear of Air Bubbles
6.6 The Effect of Shear on Microorganisms ....................... 109
3 Nutritional Requirements in Fermentation
Processes .............................................................. 122
Willem H. Kampen
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................
2.0 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE C
3 .O THE CARBON SOURCE .......................
4.0 THE NITROGEN AND SULFUR SOUR
5.0 THE SOURCE OF TRACE AND
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS .......................
6.0 THE VITAMIN SOURCE AND OTHER
GROWTH FACTORS .............................................
7.0 PHYSICAL AND IONIC REQUIREMENTS ..........
8.0 MEDIA DEVELOPMEN ......................................... 149
9.0 EFFECT OF NUTRIEN CENTRATION
GROWTH RATE .............................................
REFERENCES ...... ........................................... 159
4 Statistical Methods For
Fermentation Optimization ................................ 161
Edwin 0. Geiger
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 16 1
2.0 TRADITIONAL ONE-VARIABLE-AT-A-TIME
METHOD ................................................................... 16 1
3 .O EVOLUTIONARY OPTIMIZATION ............................... 162
4.0 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY ..................... 166
mi Contents
5.0 ADVANTAGES OF RSM ................................................ 168
5.1 Maximum Information from Experiments .................... 169
5.2 Forces One To Plan ..................................................... 170
5.3 Know How Long Project Will Take ............................. 170
5.4 Interaction Between Variables ..................................... 170
5.5 Multiple Responses ...............................
5.6 Design Data ..........................................
6.0 DISADVANTAGES OF RSM ....................
7.0 POTENTIAL DIFFICULTIES WITH RSM ...................... 174
7.1 Correlation Coefficient ................................................ 176
7.2 Regression Coefficients ........................................
7.3 Standard Error of the Regression Coefficient ............... 176
7.4 Computed T Value .......................................
7.5 Standard Error of the Estimate .....................
7.6 Analysis of Variance ................................................... 177
8.0 METHODS TO IMPROVE THE RSM MODEL .............. 178
9.0 SUMMARY ..................... ................................... 179
REFERENCES ..................... .................... 179
5 Agitation ....................... .............. ....................... 181
James I: Oldshue
1 . 0 THEORY AND CONCEPTS .........................
2.0 PUMPING CAPACITY AND FLUID SHEAR RATES .... 182
3.0 MIXERS AND IMPELLERS ................... 183
3.1 Fluidfoil Impellers ...................................................... 191
4.0 BAFFLES ................................................................... 201
5.0 FLUID SHEAR RATES ...........................
5.1 Particles .................................................................. 206
5.2 Impeller Power Consumption ...... ............................ 207
5.3 Mass Transfer Characteristics of idfoil Impellers .... 217
6.1 Some General Relationships in Large Scale Mixers
Compared to Small Scale Mixers .............................
6.2 Scale-up Based on Data from Existing
Production Plant ........................... ................... 220
6.3 Data Based on Pilot Plant Work ............... .. 223
6.4 Sulfite Oxidation Data ................................................. 226
6.5 Oxygen Uptake Rate in the Broth ......... ................... 227
227
6.7 Reverse Rotation Dual Power Impellers ....................... 228
.............. 229
................... 231
6.0 FULL-SCALE PLANT DESIGN ................................
6.6 Some General Concepts .................................
7.0 FULL SCALE PROCESS EXAMPLE .........
8.0 THE ROLE OF CELL CONCENTRATION
MASS TRANSFER RATE .....
Contents xvii
9.0 SOME OTHER MASS TRANSFER CONSIDERATIONS235
10.0 DESIGN PROBLEMS IN BIOCHEMICAL
ENGINEERING ............................................................... 23 6
1 1 .O SOLUTION-FERMENTATION PROBLEMS ............... 238
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................... 240
REFERENCES ................................................................... 241
6 Filtration ............................................................. 242
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 242
................................................... 243
2.0 CAKE FILTRATION ....................................................... 243
3.0 THEORY .......................................
3.1 Flow Theory ...................................
4.0 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION ......
5.0 OPTIMAL CAKE THICKNESS ...........
6.0 FILTER AID ................................................................... 247
7.0 FILTER MEDIA ..............................
8 .O EQUIPMENT SELECTION ............
8.1 Pilot Testing ...............................
Celeste L Todaro
1.1 Depth Filtration ....
3.2 Cake Compressibility ...................... .................... 244
10.1 Operation and Applications ..............
............................................ 258
11.1 Applications .........................
11.2 Operation .................................................................. 260
11.3 Maintenance ............................................................. 264
12.0 HP-HYBRID FILTER PRESS .......................................... 266
12.1 Applications .......... ........................................ 266
12.2 Operation ........................................................ 267
12.3 Maintenance ......... ......................................... 269
13.0 MANUFACTURERS ............................
Rotary Drum Vacuum Filters .................
Nutsches ..........................................
Hybrid Filter Press .............
REFERENCES .........
7 Cross-Flow Filtration .......................................... 271
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 27 1
Ramesh R. Bhave
xviii Contents
2.0 CROSS-FLOW VS. DEAD END FILTRATION ................ 273
3.0 COMPARISON OF CROSS-FLOW WITH OTHER
COMPETING TECHNOLOGIES ................................
4.2 Inorganic Microfilters and Ultrafilters .......................... 285
5 .O OPERATING CONFIGURATIONS ................................. 289
5.2 Feed and Bleed ............................................................ 292
5.3 Single vs. Multistage Continuous System ..................... 297
6.0 PROCESS DESIGN ASPECTS ........................................ 297
6.1 Minimization of Flux Decline With Backpulse
or Backwash ..... ............................ ..................... 297
6.2 Uniform Transmembrane Pressure Filtration ................ 300
6.3 Effect of Operating Parameters on Filter Performance .. 305
6.4 Membrane Cleaning ................................
6.6 Troubleshooting ........................................ 3 18
......................... 318
6.8 Safety and Environmental Consi
7.1 Clarification of Fermentation Broths .........
7.2 Purification and Concentration of Enzymes .................. 323
7.3 Microfiltration for Removal of Microorganisms
7.4 Production of Bacteria-free Water ............................... 329
7.5 Production of Pyrogen-free Water ..
8.0 GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...................
ACKNOWLEDGMENT .............................
4.1 Polymeric Microfilters and Ultrafilters ........................ 28 1
5.1 Batch System .............................................................. 289
6.5 Pilot Scale Data and Scaleup ....................................... 3 16
6.7 Capital and Operating Cost ......
7.0 APPLICATIONS OVERVIEW .........................
or Cell Debris ........................................................
AP-PENDIX: LIST OF MEMBRANE MAN
(MICROFILTRATION AND ULTRAFILTRATION) ...... 33 8
REFERENCES ................................................. ......... 343
8 Solvent Extraction ............................................... 348
1 .O EXTRACTION CONCEPTS ............................................ 348
2.0 DISTRIBUTION DATA ...............
3.0 SOLVENT SELECTION ..............................
4.0 CALCULATION PROCEDURES ........................... 355
4.2 Sample Stage Calculation ............................................ 360
363
DavidB. Todd
1.1 Theoretical Stage ...........................
4.1 Simplified Solution ..................................
5 .O DROP MECHANICS ...........................
Contents xix
6.0 TYPES OF EXTRACTION EQUIPMENT ....................... 366
6.1 Non-Agitated Gravity Flow Extractors ........................ 3 66
6.2 Stirred Gravity Flow Extractors ............
6.3 Pulsed Gravity Flow Extractors ................................... 37 1
6.4 Centnfbgal Extractors ................................................. 373
6.5 Equipment Size Calculation .......................
7.0 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT .....................
8.0 PROCEDURE SUMMARY ............................
9.0 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION .........................
REFERENCES ........ ............................................. 380
9 Ion Exchange ............ ..... .................. ............ ...... 382
Frederick J. Dechow
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 3 82
1.1 Ion Exchange Processes ............................................... 383
.... 384
2.0 THEORY ................................................................... 389
1.2 Chromatographic Separation ..........................
2.1 Selectivity ..........................................
2.2 Kinetics ........................................
2.3 Chromatographic Theory ............................................. 400
3.0 ION EXCHANGE MATERIALS AND
THEIR PROPERTIES ...................................................... 407
3.1 Ion Exchange Matrix ................................................... 407
3.2 Functional Groups ..........................................
3.3 Porosity and Surface Area ..............................
3.4 Particle Density ............................................. 418
3.5 Particle Size .............................................
4.0 LABORATORY EVALUATION OF RESIN.
5.0 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS ...................................... 426
5.1 Design Factors .................................................
5.2 Scaling-up Fixed Bed Operations .
5.3 Sample Calculation ....................................
5.4 Comparison of Packed and Fluidized Beds ..
5.6 Pressure Drop ............................................................. 436
5.7 Ion Exchange Resin Limitations .........
5.8 Safety Considerations ........................
6.0 ION EXCHANGE OPERATIONS .................................... 443
6.1 Pretreatment ................................................................ 445
6.2 Batch Operations ......................................................... 445
6.3 Column Operations ................................
6.4 ElutiodRegeneration ................................................... 45 8
7.0 INDUSTRIAL CHROMATOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS , ,462
REFERENCES ................................................................... 470
5.5 Chromatographic Scale-up Procedures ..............
xx Contents
10 Evaporation .......................................................... 476
Howard L. Freese
1.0 INTRODUCTION .....................................................
2.0 EVAPORATORS AND EVAPORATION SYSTEMS
3.0 LIQUID CHARACTERISTICS .................................
4.0 HEAT TRANSFER IN EVAPORATORS ...
5 .O EVAPORATOR TYPES .............................
5.1 Jacketed Vessels .......................................................... 49 1
5.2 Horizontal Tube Evaporators ....................................... 493
5.3 Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators .............................
5.4 Propeller Calandrias .................................................... 494
5.5 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators ......... ................. 494
5.6 Falling Film Evaporators ......................................
5.7 Forced Circulation Evaporators ................................... 497
5.8 Plate Evaporators .................................................
5.9 Mechanically Agitated %-Film Evaporators ......
5.10 Flash Pots and Flash Evaporators ...........
5.11 Multiple Effect Evaporators ...................
6.0 ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS FOR EVAPORATION
SYSTEM DESIGN ........................................................... 5 10
7.0 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR EVAPORATORS518
10.0 INSTALLATION OF EVAPORATORS ............
11 Crystallization ..................................................... 535
Stephen M. Glasgow
1.0 INTRODUCTION .. ...........................
2.0 THEORY ....................................................
2.1 Field of Supersaturation ................
2.2 Formation of a Supersaturated Solution
2.3 Appearance of Crystalline Nuclei ..
2.4 Growth of Nuclei to Size ...............
3 .O CRYSTALLIZATION EQUIPMENT ............................... 54 1
3.1 Evaporative Crystallizer ................
3.2 Vacuum Cooling Crystallizer ....................................... 545
3.3 Cooling Crystallizer ......
3.4 Batch Crystallization ....................................
4.0 DATA NEEDED FOR DESIGN
....... 544
.................. 546
Contents xui
5.0 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
FERMENTATION PROCESSES .............. ............... 547
5.1 Temperature Limitation 547
5.3 Long Desupersaturation Time ..............................
5.4 Slow Crystal Growth Rate .....................
6.0 METHOD OF CALCULATION ...............................
7.0 TROUBLESHOOTING ............................................
7.1 Deposits ................................................................... 551
7.2 Crystal Size Too Small ................................................ 552
7.3 Insufficient Vacuum .................................................... 553
,554
7.4 Instrument Malfimction ...........................
7.5 Foaming ................................................................... 554
7.6 Pump Performance ...................................................... 555
....................................
5.2 High Viscosity ............................................................ 547
8.0 SUMMARY ................................................................... 555
9.0 AMERICAN MANUFACTURERS .......
REFERENCES ......................
12 Centrifugation ..................................................... 558
Celeste L Todaro
1 .O INTRODUCTION ...............................
3.0 EQUIPMENT SEL
................... 558
3.1 Pilot Testing ..... .........................
4.0 COMPONENTS
5.0 SEDIMENTATI
6.0 TUBULAR-BO
6.1 Operation .............................................
7.0 CONTINUOU
7.1 Maintenance ................ ............................
8.1 Operation ........................................................
8.2 Maintenance ............................ ....................... 572
9.0 FILTERING CENTRIFUGES VS.
.............................
xxii Contents
11.2 Solids Discharge ................................
1 1.4 Maintenance ......................................
12.1 Applications .......................................
1 1.3 Operational Speeds ............................
12.0 HORIZONTAL PEELER CENTRIFUGE ......................... 577
12.2 Operation .................................................................. 578
13 .O INVERTING FILTER CENTRIFUGE ....................
13.1 Operation ........................................................
13.2 Maintenance ...................................... ......
14.1 Bearings ...............................................
14.0 MAINTENANCE: CENTRIFUGE .................................... 583
15.0 SAFETY ................................................................... 585
17.0 MANUFACTURERS ........................................................ 588
16.0 PRESSURE-ADDED CENTRIFUGATION ..................... 585
17.1 Filtering Centrifuges ................................................. 588
17.3 Oxygen Analyzers . .
17.2 Sedimentation Centrifuges .....................
...................................... 589
REFERENCES ........
13 Water Systems For Pharmaceutical Facilities ... 590
Mark Keyashian
1 .O INTRODUCTION .......
2.0 SCOPE ....................................................
3.0 SOURCE OF WATER.
4.0 POTABLE WATER .........................................
5 .O WATER PRETREATMENT .............................
6.0 MULTIMEDIA FILTRATION
7.0 WATER SOFTENING ...........................
8.0 ACTIVATED CARBON ................................................... 596
9.0 ULTRAVIOLET PURIFICATION ................................... 598
10.0 DEIONIZATION .......................................... 598
1 1 .O PURIFIED WATER .......... ..................................... 601
12.0 REVERSE OSMOSIS ...................................
13 .O WATER FOR INJECTION ............................................... 604
14.0 WATER SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION ....
APPENDIX I: EXISTING AND PROPOSED U.
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS ...........
APPENDIX 11: DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, E
AND WELFARE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE .............. 613
Criteria for the Acceptability of an Ultraviolet
Disinfecting Unit ........ ....................... 614
REFERENCES ................................ .............. 615
Contents xxiii
14 Sterile Formulation ............................................... 616
Michael J. Akers, Curtis S. Strother, Mark R. Walden
1 .O INTRODUCTION .......................................................
2.0 STERILE BULK PREPARATION ..............................
3 .O ISOLATION OF STERILE BULK PRODUCT ................ 6 18
3.1 General Considerations ...........................................
4.0 CRYSTALLIZATION ................................
5 .O FILTERINGAIRYING ...................................................... 6 19
6.0 MILLINGBLENDING ..............................
7.0 BULK FREEZE DRYING .........................
8.0 SPRAY DRYING ............................................................. 621
9.0 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION ........................................ 622
11.1 Vial and Stopper Preparation .................................... 623
1 1.2 Filling of Vials .......................................................... 624
10 .O VALIDATION ...........................................................
11.0 FILLING VIALS WITH STERILE BULK MATERIALS .623
12.0 ENVIRONMENT ..................................
12.1 Aseptic Areas .........
12.2 Controlled Areas ..................
12.3 Monitoring the Environment ........................
12.4 Evaluation of the Air .............
12.5 Evaluation of Surfaces ..........
12.6 Evaluation of Water ...............
12.7 Evaluation of Compressed Gas
12.8 Evaluation of Personnel ................
........................ 628
................... 630
13.0 EQUIPMENT LIST .....................
REFERENCES ................................................................... 633
15 Environmental Concerns .................................... 635
Elliott Goldberg and Maung K. Min
1 .O ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
AND TECHNOLOGY .......................... ............... 635
1.1 Regulatory Concerns ................................................... 635
1.2 Technology .............................
2.0 LAWS, REGULATIONS AND PE
2.1 Air ...............................
2.2 Water ...............................
2.3 Solid Waste .............................
2.5 Environmental Auditing ..
2.6 National Environmental P
2.4 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) .............. 641
2.7 Storm Water Regulations
............................... 643
. 646
............................... 647
xxiv Contents
3 .O TECHNOLOGY (WASTE WATER) ...........
3.1 NPDES ........................................
3.2 Effluent Limitations ..........................
3.3 Continuous Discharger .....................
3.4 Non-Continuous Discharger .............
3.5 Mass Limitations ......................................................... 649
3.6 Waste Water Characterization ..................................... 650
3.7 Common Pollutants ..............................
4.0 WASTE WATER TREATMENT STRATE
4.1 Activated Carbon .................................
4.2 Air Stripping ........................................
4.4 Heavy Metals Removal ..............................
4.3 Steam Stripping ........................................................... 654
4.5 Chemical Precipitation ...............................
4.6 Electrolysis ................................................................. 656
4.7 Ion Exchange .............................................................. 656
4.8 Membrane Technology
4.9 Organic Removal .....................................
4.10 Activated Sludge Systems
5.0 AIR (EMISSIONS OF CO
5.1 Volatile Organic Corn
5.2 Inorganics ..............
5.3 Particulates ............
6.1 Exhaust Stream ....................
6.2 Pollutant ............................................
7.0 VOLATILE ORGANIC
EMISSIONS CONTROL .............
7.1 Thermal Incineration
7.2 Catalytic Incineratio
6.0 SELECTING A CONTR
..................... 662
7.3 Carbon Adsorption ................ .................... 666
7.4 Adsorption and Incineration ...............................
7.5 Condensation .............................................................. 667
7.6 Absorption ........ .............................
8.0 PARTICULATE CO
8.1 Fabric Filters (B
8.2 CyclonesMech
8.3 Electrostatic P
9.1 Wet Scrubbing ........
9.0 INORGANICS .................................................................. 672
REFERENCES ............... .....................
Contents xxv
16 Instrumentation and Control Systems ............... 675
John R King
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 675
2.0 MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY ........ .............. 676
3.0 BIOSENSORS .......................................................
4.0 CELL MASS MEASUREMENT ...........................
5 .O CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ......................
6.0 DISSOLVED OXYGEN ................................................... 680
7.0 EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS ......................
8.0 MEASUREMENT OF pH ............................
9.0 WATERP URITY.... .................................................... 685
10.0 TEMPERATURE .... .................................................... 686
11.0 PRESSURE ...........................................................
12.0 MASS ............................................
13.0 MASS FLOW RATE ................................................
14.0 VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE ......................................... 691
15.0 BROTH LEVEL ............................................
16.0 REGULATORY CONTROL ........
16.1 Single Stage Control .............
17.0 DYNAMIC MODELING ...........................
18.0 MULTIVARIABLE CONTROL ....................................... 699
18.1 Batch Control ............................. ....................... 699
19.0 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGEN
20.0 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL
REFERENCES .....................
17 Dlying .................................................................. 706
Barry Fox, Giovanni Bellini, and Laura Pellegrini
SECTION I: INDIRECT DRYING (by Giovanni Bellini,
and Laura Pellegrini) ............................................................. 706
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 706
2.0 THEORY ............................................ ............ 707
3 .O EQUIPMENT SELECTION ............................................. 7 1 1
...................... 724
...................... 725
...................... 729
4.0 EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS ................................. 730
5 .O DIRECTORY OF MANUFACTURERS ........................... 73 1
REFERENCES (for Section I: Indirect Drying) ........................ 733
3.1 Testing and Scale-up .............................................
3.2 Cost Estimation .........................
3.3 Installation Concerns .................
3.4 Safety Considerations ...................
mi Contents
SECTION 11: DIRECT DRYING (by Barry Fox) ............... 734
1 .O INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 734
2.0 DEFINITIONS ................................................................. 735
3.0 PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS ......................................... 737
4.0 DRYING THEORY .......................................................... 737
5.0 FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF DRYER SELECTION. 738
5.1 Batch Direct Dryers .............................................
5.2 Batch Fluid Bed Dryers ........................................
5.3 Batch Rotary Dryers ................................................... 741
5.4 Ribbon Dryers ............................................................. 741
5.5 Paddle Dryers .............................................................. 742
5.6 Agitated Pan Dryers .................................................... 742
5.7 Continuous Dryers ............................................ .743
5.8 Spray Dryers ............................................................... 743
5.9 Flash Dryers ............................................................... 744
5.10 Ring Dryers .............. ............................................ 744
5.1 1 Mechanically Agitated Flash Dryers ....
5.12 Rotary Tray or Plate Dryers ........................
5.13 Fluid Bed Dryers ........
6.0 DATA REQUIREMENTS ..
7.0 SIZING DRYERS ...................................
7.1 Spray Dryers ..........
7.2 Flash Dryers ..........
7.3 Tray Dryers .....................................
7.5 Belt or Band Dryers ..........................
8.1 Specific Features ..................
...................... 746
7.4 Fluid Bed Dryers .... ............................ 752
8.0 SAFETY ISSUES ...........
9.0 DECISIONS .....................................................
10.0 TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE ...................................... 756
11 .O RECOMMENDED VENDORS LIST ............................... 757
Drying) ................................................. 758
'
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY (for Section 11: Direct
18 Plant Design and Cost. ........................................ 759
Russell T Roane
1 .O INTRODUCTION TO THE CAPITAL PROJECT
LIFE CYCLE ................................................................... 759
3.0 PRELIMINARY DESIGN PHASE ................................... 763
2.0 CONCEPTUAL PHASE ................................................... 762
Contents xxvii
4.0 DETAIL DESIGN PHASE ...........................................
5 .O CONSTRUCTION PHASE ............................................... 767
7.0 THE FAST TRACK CONCEPT .............. 770
8 .O THE IMPACT OF VALIDATION .................................... 77 1
9.0 INTRODUCTION TO THE COSTING OF A
CAPITAL PROJECT ........................................................ 772
6.0 START-UP PHASE .......................................................... 769
10.0 ORDER OF MAGNITUDE ESTIMATE .............
1 1 .O APPROVAL GRADE ESTIMATE ...........
12.0 CONTROL ESTIMATE ...........................
13.0 DYNAMICS OF AN ESTIMATE ......................
Index ......................................................................... 779
