第四章 费用效益分析简介
Introduction to Cost-Benefit Analysis
第一节 简介
Why and how CBA?
(Introduction and example case)
产生
? 费用效益分析的思想之父是 19世纪的法
国人 杜波伊特( Jules Dupuit),他在
1844年撰写了, 论公共工程效益的衡
量, 。在这篇著名的论文中,杜波伊特
认同了, 消费者剩余, 的概念,并指出,
公共工程的效益并不等同于公共工程本
身所产生的直接收入。
早期应用
? 1936年美国颁布的, 洪水控制法案,
( Flood Control Act) 提出要检验洪水
控制项目的可行性,要求对, 任何人来
说, 效益都必须超过费用。
早期应用
? 1946年,美国联邦机构流域委员会 任命
了一个费用效益小组委员会,协调联邦
各部门费用效益分析的具体工作。 1950
年,这个小组委员会发表了一个里程碑
式的报告,题为, 关于流域项目经济分
析实践的建议, (Proposed Practices
for Economic Analysis of River
Basin Project)。
费用效益分析应用的推广和强化
? 卡特政府曾经规定所有对环境产生影响
的项目,在环境影响评价中都必须进行
费用效益分析 。
? 1973年,美国颁布了, 水和土地资源规
划原则和标准, 的文件,使得费用效益
分析的重点放在了国民经济发展、环境
质量、区域发展和社会福利等方面。
费用效益分析应用的推广和强化
? 1981年里根总统签署 12291号行政命令,其目
的是确保所有的主要规则都要进行费用效益分
析,决策要以这种分析为基础
? 1985年里根总统发布的 12498号行政命令,要
求每个行政机构都要将费用效益分析作为, 年
度规章计划, 的基础,这大大促进了费用效益
分析的发展
? 1993年克林顿总统签署 12866号行政命令,坚
定地信奉费用效益分析作为管理决策
( regulatory decisions)的中心内容,与以
往不同的是,这个命令要求, 公平, 和, 分配
影响, 作为费用效益分析的相关要素
Why CBA?
l Typical of the questions on which
cost-benefits analysis has something
to say,project /policy selection,
l If we have to decide whether to do
A or not,the rule is,
Do A if the benefits exceed
those of the next best
alternative course of action,and
not otherwise,
Why CBA?
? " benefits of the next best alternative to
A" as the "opportunity cost of A",
? For if A is done those alternative benefits
are lost,
? So the rule becomes,
Do A if its benefits exceed its costs,
and not otherwise
How CBA?
Assign numerical values to costs and
benefits,and arrive at decisions by
adding them up,and accept those
projects whose benefits exceed their
cost,
How CBA?
If we assume that only people matter,the
analysis naturally involves two steps,
1,how the decision would affect the
welfare of the each individual concerned,
2,the change in social welfare implied
by all the changes in individual welfare,
Case study,CBA to a ferry project
The case,
? Suppose there is a river which at
present can only be crossed by ferry,
The government considers building
a bridge,which,being rather
upstream,would take the traveler
the same time to complete a
crossing,
The case
Ferry
Bridge
City
City
Case study,CBA to a ferry project
? The ferry is a privately owned monopoly and charges
$0.20 per crossing,while its total costs per
crossing are $0.15,It is used for 5,000 crossings
per year,
? The bridge would cost $30,000 to build but would
be open free of charge,It is expected that there
will be 25,000 crossings a year with the bridge,
? The ferry would go out of business,
?Question, whether
to go ahead with the
bridge?
Case study,CBA to a ferry project
? In any cost-benefit exercise it is usually
convenient to proceed in two stages,
(a) identify costs and benefits incurred and value the
cost and benefits in each year of the project;
(c) Obtain an aggregate "present value" of the project
by "discounting" costs and benefits in future years to
make them commensurate with present cost and
benefits,and then add them up,
Case study,CBA to a ferry project
consumer’s surplus for four parties identified,
L The taxpayers lose $30,000,assuming the bridge is financed by
extra taxes,(once and for all)
L The ferry owners lose their excess profits of $250 [i.e,0.05 *
5,000] in each future year for ever,( area A on figure)
L The existing travelers gain $1,000 [ 0.20* 5,000] in each
future year for ever,due to the fall in price ( area A+B),
L The new travelers,area C = (0.20 +0 )/2 * 20000 = $2,000 for
each future year for ever,
stage 1 — identify costs and benefits incurred
and value the cost and benefits in each year of
the project
Ferry price (P0) 0.20
Ferry cost 0.15
Crossing per year
Bridge price 0.00
(P1) 5,000 25,000
(q0) (q1)
Existing traffic Generated traffic
A
B
C
stage 1 — identify costs and benefits incurred
and value the cost and benefits in each year of
the project
consumer’s surplus for four parties identified,
stage 1 — identify costs and benefits incurred
and value the cost and benefits in each year of
the project
Future net benefits per year for ever
$/year
Area in
figure 1
Present value at 10%
discount rate
Ferry owners -250 -A - 2,500
Existing
consumers
+
1000
A+B
+10,000
New
consumers
+
2000
C
+20,000
taxpayers
(-30,000)
- 30,000
Society total
B+C-(30,000)
-2,500
假定,
? A,B,C都是每年发生的,
? 而纳税人的支付( 30,000)
是一次性的
? 折现率为 10%
? 修桥的支付在第一年的
第一天发生;其它支出
从一年后开始发生。
Stage 2,Obtain an aggregate "present value"
of the project
? 折现 /贴现 (discount):考虑时间因素,将未来
的费用和效益值,折算为现值( Present Value,
PV)
? Why discount? Time preference (时间偏
好) ——人们认为现在的 1块钱,要比明年的 1
块钱价值大。
? 折现率 /贴现率( discount rate)
PV and Discount Rate
? Present Value (PV)
? Question,How much would I have to invest
today at an interest rate i to earn $A one
year from now?
? Answer,PV !
PV (1+i ) = A
PV = A/(1+i )
PV and Discount Rate
? Two years? How much should I have to
invest today at an interest rate i to earn
$A two years from now?
[ PV (1+i)] (1+i ) = A
PV = A / (1+i )2
? t years?
PV = A / (1+i )t
Net Present Value(净现值)
? Cost-Benefit Analysis
NPV =
=
B0,C0 B1,C1 B2,C2 B3,C3
?
? ?
?m
t
t
tt
i
CB
0 )1(
??
?? ?
?
?
m
t
t
t
m
t
t
t
i
C
i
B
00 )1()1(
Stage 2, "discount" costs and benefits in future
years to make them commensurate with present
cost and benefits,and then add them up
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
???
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
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n
0i
i
ii
tctb
n
0i
i
i
tc
n
0i
i
i
tb
i
i
ic
i
i
ib
)r1(
C-B
PVPVN P V
)r1(
C
PV
)r1(
B
PV
)r1(
C
PV
)r1(
B
PV
Bi - 第 i年的效益值
PVib – 第 i年的效益现值
Ci — 第 i年的成本值
PVic –第 i年的成本现值
PVtb –计算期( n 年)内的总效益现值
PVtc –计算期( n 年)内的总成本现值
r — 折现率 /贴现率
NPV — 净现值 ( Net Present Value)
判断项目的可行性
? If NPV > 0,then project acceptable,
? If NPV < 0,then project rejected,
Case study,CBA to a ferry project
Future net benefits per year for ever
$/yea
r
Area in
figure 1
Present value at 10%
discount rate
Ferry owners -250 -A - 2,500
Existing
consumers
+
1000
A+B
+10,000
New
consumers
+
2000
C
+20,000
taxpayers
(-30,000)
- 30,000
Society total
B+C-(30,000)
-2,500
假设:投资发生在起始年的第一天;
其它成本和效益都从起始年的最后一天开始计算。
Case study,CBA to a ferry project
What if discount rate is 5%?
$/year
Area in
figure 1
Present value at new
discount rate
-5,000 Ferry owners
-250
-A
Existing
consumers
+
1000
A+B
+20,000
New consumers
+
2000
C
+40,000
taxpayers
-30,000 -30,000 Society total
B+C-(30,000) +25,000
假设:投资发生在起始年的第一天;
其它成本和效益都从起始年的最后一天开始计算。
第二节 决策依据
Decision making rule
Decision making rule in CBA
? If r is the discount rate,the value of a
project becomes,
NPV = ∑ (Bt-Ct) / (1+r)t
? The project should be undertaken if it
has positive value,
Accept a project if NPV > 0
Reject a project if NPV < 0
Decision making rule in CBA
? Two mutually exclusive projects,
Project A,NPVA > 0
Project B,NPVB > 0
? Select the project with the highest NPV,
Alternative decision rules
——Benefit-cost Ratio method
(效益 -成本比率)
CB
N
t
t
tc
N
t
t
tB
PVPVN P V
iCPV
iBPV
??
??
??
?
?
?
?
0
0
)1/(
)1/(
Decision rule,
If PVB/PVC > 1,then accept the project
If PVB/PVC < 1, then reject the project
Alternative decision rules
——Benefit-cost Ratio method
(效益 -成本比率)
? Example,
Project A PVB = $ 200; PVC = $ 100
Project B PVB = $ 170; PVC = $ 80
NPV of A = $200 - $100 =$100
NPV of B = $170 - $80 =$90
A > B
B/C ration for project A,$200/$100 = 2
B/C ration for project B,$170/$80 = 2.125
A< B
? B-C ration sometimes gives wrong answer,
Alternative decision rules——
Internal Rate of Return method
(内部收益率)
? IRR is the discount rate ρwhich cause
the net present value of the net benefit
stream to be equal to zero,
0
)1(0
?
?
?
?
?
N
t
t
tt CB
?
Alternative decision rules——
Internal Rate of Return method
(内部收益率)
? Decision Rule,
Accept the project if ρ > i
Reject the project if ρ < i
i —— Discount Rate
Alternative decision rules——
Internal Rate of Return method
(内部收益率)
? Example,
C0 = 1000
B1 = 100,B2 = 100,……,forever!
NPV= -1000+100/ρ = 0
ρ = 0.1 (10%)
Alternative decision rules——
Internal Rate of Return method
(内部收益率)
i ρ
NPV
(+)
(0)
Alternative decision rules——
Internal Rate of Return method
(内部收益率)
Potential problem
? Two mutually exclusive projects, A&B
? Suppose, ρA IRR of Project A
ρB IRR of Project B
? supposeρA > i and ρB > i
? select the project with the largest IRR
Alternative decision rules——
Internal Rate of Return method
(内部收益率)
year
Project
Net benefit
in year i
IRR
NPV at discount rate i
0 1 2
2% 5.2% 7%
A
-1000 0 1210
0.1
163 93 57
B
-1000 1150 0
0.15
127 93 75
IRR criteria,B better than A;
But,depends on what i to choose,
Alternative decision rules——
Net Present Value Rate method
(净现值率)
pI
N P VN P V R ?
NPVR——净现值率
Ip —— 总投资的现值
NPV——净现值
一般选择净现值率高的项目
第三节 (环境经济)费用效益
分析 ——案例
参考文献,
毛显强、彭应登、郭秀锐, 2002,国内大城市煤改气工程的费用
效益分析,环境科学,Vol.23 No.5,121-125
(环境经济)费用效益分析
( Cost-benefit Analysis) 的步骤
? 识别项目的费用和效益
- 确定分析范围,识别主要环境影响
- 分析环境影响的物理效果( dose-
response)
- 对物理效果进行价值评估
? 贴现计算
? 比较贴现后的费用和效益,判断费用效
益可行性,NPV
国内大城市煤改气工程的费用 -
效益分析案例
? 背景
? 分析步骤
? 价值评估方法
? 计算 NPV
背景 (1990年代)
? 特殊的能源结构是中国城市大气污染严重的主要
原因 。
? SO2排放量的 90%、,烟尘排放的 73%来自煤的
燃烧 。
? 与煤相比, 天然气燃烧排放的污染物很低, 几乎
达到零排放 。
? 国内天然气储藏量和煤相比要小得多, 而且过去
一直主要作为化工原料使用, 在国家控制下严格
执行计划分配 。
? 论证大城市内天然气替代煤作民用燃料的环境经
济合理性
分析步骤
? 建立用于估算燃煤排放大气污染物造成的环境
健康损害价值的剂量 -反应函数;
? 估算由于天然气对煤炭进行置换改善大气环境
的程度;
? 计算替换后所能够避免的环境健康损失, 所避
免的环境损害价值就成为环境效益;计算替换
后所能够产生的其他效益, 如节省占地等;
? 计算天然气替换燃煤的所有费用;
? 计算项目的净现值和内部收益率
剂量 -反应法( Dose-Response
Technique)
? 主要污染物 PM10和 SO2造成的健康损失
ΔDa = R1× ΔPM10 × POP × N PM10 (1)
ΔDb = R2 × ΔSO2 × POP (2)
ΔDa — 由 PM10引起的病例增加数;
ΔDb — 由 SO2引起的病例增加数;
R1,R2 — 分别为 PM10和 SO2造成的健康损失剂量反应系数;
ΔPM10 — PM10的年均浓度变化值;
ΔSO2 — SO2的年均浓度变化值;
POP — 暴露人口数;
NPM10 — 一年内 PM10 浓度超过标准的天数 。
效益转移技术
( Benefit Transfer Method)
? 又叫, 成果借鉴法,
? 把已经开展研究的地点称为, 研究地
点,,把需要开展研究的地点称为, 政
策地点, 。
? 首先寻找已经进行价值评估的研究地点;
? 将研究地点发生的同类效益或者成本参
数转移到政策地点,进行费用效益分析。
效益转移技术
( Benefit Transfer Method)
? 以 EXMOD模型中关于健康影响的货币化
估值( WTP)为原始值
? 计算原始健康损害估价值占初始估算国 /
地区(取得该估价值的国家 /地区)人均
GDP的比重;
? 以该比重值乘以转移估算国 /地区的人均
GDP值,取得转移估算国 /地区的货币估
算值
剂量 -反应法
( Dose-Response Technique)
? 使用 EXMOD模型( Rowe等)计算 PM10造
成的损失,以 WHO标准为临界值
污染物
健康影响
系数
低 中 高
PM10
死亡率 /例 ·( d·人 ·μg·m3)-1
>=65 1.01E-07 1.69E-07 2.54E-07 <65
1.40E-09
2.30E-09
3.50E-09
发病率 成人慢性支气管炎 CB( >=25) /例 ·(a·人 ·μg·m3)-1
3.0E-05
6.1E-05
9.3E-05
因呼吸系统疾病医院就诊 (RHA) /例 ·(d·人 ·μg·m3)-1 1.8E-08 3.3E-08 4.8E-08
急诊室就诊 (ERV)/ 例 ·(d·人 ·μg·m3)-1
3.2E-07
6.5E-07
9.7E-07
哮喘 (AA)/例 ·( d·人 ·μg·m3) -1 0.9E-04 1.6E-04 5.4E-04 限制活动日 ( RAD) (>=18)/例 ·(d·人 ·μg·m3)-1
0.8E-04
1.6E-04
2.5E-04
急性呼吸系统症状 ARS/例 ·( d·人 ·μg·m3) -1 2.2E-04 4.6E-04 7.0E-04 儿童急性哮喘 ( =<18) /例 ·( a·人 ·μg·m3) -1
8.00E-04
1.60E-03
2.4E-03
剂量 -反应法
( Dose-Response Technique)
? 采用 Ostra的 SO2损害模型
污染

健康影响
系数



SO2
死亡率 ( 死亡案例增加百分比 ) /%
2.00E-02 4.80E-02 1.21E-01 儿童呼吸系统症状 ( <15) ( 咳嗽发生的概
率 )
/例 ·( a·人 ·μg·m3) -1
1.00E-05 1.81E-05 2.62E-05
成人呼吸系统症状 /胸部不适 ( >15) ( 胸
部不适的概率 ) /例 ·( a·人 ·μg·m3) -1
5.00E-03 1.00E-02 1.50E-02
重庆煤改气工程的费用 -效益分析
? 重庆市天然气替代煤工程于 1998年开始
启动,本工程的煤改气对象包括:城区
1153台 10t/h及以下锅炉,1.85万台餐饮
炉灶,1500台茶水炉及 58万居民用户
煤改气后的环境效益
? 面源对重庆市主城区近地面 SO2浓度的贡献率
水平为 81.52%。 鉴于工程将把所有的面源由
燃煤改为燃气, 则工程实施后 SO2浓度的削减
率也为 81.52%。
? 颗粒物污染 43%来自燃煤烟尘, 则该煤改气工
程的实施对颗粒物污染的削减率为 35.1%。
? SO2和 TSP的浓度削减量分别为,0.149mg/m3
和 0.082mg/m3 ; 削 减 后 的 浓 度 分 别 为
0.034mg/m3和 0.152mg/m3。
? 将计算的 TSP浓度削减量换算为 PM10浓度削减
量 ( 采用的转换系数为 0.6)
重庆煤改气工程减少环境健康损害的
总效益估算值 /元( 1998)
方案
低值 中值 高值
SO2浓度降低产生的健康
效益 6.18E+08 2.87E+09 1.31E+10
PM10浓度降低产生的健康
效益 6.00E+08 2.06E+09 5.92E+09
总效益
1.22E+09 4.93E+09 1.90E+10
费用核算
? 重庆煤改气工程天然气管网系统建设成本 /万元
年份
固定资产投资
流动资金
经营成本
现金流出
1
5896.66
5896.66
2 23991.04 461.27 15282.03 39734.34
3
32770.31
602.55
35015.49
68388.35
4 4245.51 593.95 54592.63 59432.09
5
3363.89
600.31
72454.54
76418.74
6 600.23 72454.54 73054.77
7
600.31
72454.54
73054.85
8~ 20 72454.54 72454.54
费用核算
? 燃烧设备改造成本
设备名称
民用灶
餐饮炉灶
茶水炉
工业生产锅炉
总计
增加支出
设备费
设备数量
58万
18500
1500
1153
设备费 /万元 8700 14245 1747.5 17299.81 41992.31
燃料费
煤炭费
17400
2685
2955
13005
36045.00
天然气费 33660.3 9674 10837.5 31691.51 85863.31
天然气和煤的差价
16260.3
6989
7882.5
18686.51
49818.31
节省开支
节约其它设备费
节约占地费 1800 1800
节约用电费
节约水费
节约人工费
120
120
节约灰渣运输费 725 4.475 123.125 541.875 1394.475
合计
314.475
现金流量分析
Net Present Value (NPV) =¥ 222,554.16YUAN ( discount rate=12%) IRR=26.38%
Year Pipeline network
construction and
running cost,
Burning
facility cost
Saved coal purchase
expenditure*
Saved other expenditure
from natural gas
replacement
Health benefit from
the project
Cash Flow
(现金流量 )
1 5896.66 52837.31 -58733.97
2 39734.34 -39734.34
3 68388.35 -68388.35
4 59432.09 -59432.09
5 73054.77 36045 3314.475 122000 88304.705
6 73054.77 36045 3314.475 122000 88304.705
7 73054.85 36045 3314.475 122000 88304.625
8 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
9 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
10 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
11 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
12 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
13 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
14 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
15 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
16 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
17 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
18 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
19 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
20 72454.54 36045 3314.475 122000 88904.935
Present value flow analysis table of Chongqing natural gas project (Health benefit in low value)
( in 10,000Yuan RMB)
重庆煤改气工程的费用 -效益分析
低值
中值
高值
净现值 (NPV)
222,554.16
1,864,952.33
8,100,908.98
内部收益率 (IRR)
26.38%
74.68%
143.03%
注,单位 (万元 ), 贴现率 =12%,计算期 =20a。
北京天然气替代煤工程的费用 -效益分析
效益估计值
低值
中值
高值
10亿 m3天然气
方案
NPV
-240,566.95
687,603.51
3,854,710.65
IRR
3.0%
29.4%
80.6%
30亿 m3天然气
方案
NPV
-54,736.55
2,729,774.81
12,231,096.25
IRR
10.9%
49.7%
126.3%
注,单位 ( 万元 ), 贴现率 =12%,计算期 =20a。
结论
? 总的来说,在人口和经济活动高度集中
的大城市内,用天然气替代燃煤,尤其
替代面源燃煤,具有较好的费 -效合理性。
第四节 一些需要注意的问题
? 费用效益分析与财务分析的区别
? 初级市场与次级市场( Primary and
secondary market)
? 外部性问题( externality)
?不确定性问题 ( uncertainty)
一、费用效益分析与财务分析
的区别
Cost-benefit Analysis
VS
Financial Analysis
费用效益分析( CBA/EA)与财务
评价( FA)的区别
? 主体不同;利益个体 ( 财 ), 社会总体
( 费 )
? 应用对象不同:公共项目主要是 CBA为准,
而私人投资项目以 FA为准 。
? 内容不同;费用与成本的识别项目, 效
益与收入的识别项目均不同 。
? 折现率不同:费用效益分析使用社会折
现率;财务分析使用财务折现率 。
费用效益分析与财务评价的区别
? 结果不同:财务评价不可行的项目在费
用效益分析时可能可行, 而在费用效益
分析时不可行的项目在财务评价时可能
可行 。
? 数据处理要求不同,FA可靠性及准确性
较高, CBA数据收集难度大, 可靠性及
准确性较低 。
? 评价方法:费用效益分析以 NPV为主 。
二、初级市场与次级市场
Primary Market and Second
Market
What is primary and
secondary market
Ex,Subway project,
? Primary Markets are directly affected by
a policy or project;
- market for transportation and market
for building materials,
? Secondary Markets are indirectly
affected
- Market for gasoline
Valuing Benefit and Cost in
Primary Market
1st problem
? For market items,market prices may
not represent the true social value of
the items,
? They may be either distorted (e.g.,by
taxes or monopoly) or there may be a
market disequilibrium (e.g.,
unemployment or balance of payment
troubles),
2nd problem
? We need to devise methods of
valuation (e.g.,for time,recreational
amenities,life and so on) for non-
market items including public goods
and the external effects of market
items,
Valuing Benefit and Cost in
Primary Market
? Both can be handled by use of
Shadow Price —— Reflects the
true social value of products or
resource factors,and realizes
optimal allocation
以市场价格为影子价格
Market prices as shadow prices
? Under the right conditions,a competitive
market equilibrium will be an efficient
allocation of resources and,
? conversely,any particular efficient
allocation of resources can be achieved
as the outcome of competitive
equilibrium,if the initial distribution of
assets to consumers is appropriate,
市场价格与影子价格
( Market prices and shadow prices)
? Market prices as shadow prices
? "the fundamental theorem of
welfare economics",under certain
circumstance market prices are often
excellent approximations to relative
shadow prices,
Market prices departure from shadow
price
? Market failures
l Property right - Public goods- Externality
l Monopoly
l Taxes
l Unemployment
l Foreign exchange
Et,al
货币汇率( Foreign exchange)
S
D
¥ per $

Shadow
price
Exchange
rate
Import
quota
外部性问题( Externality)
? Definition,
An externality is present where the
well-being of a consumer or
production possibilities of a firm are
directly affected by the action of
another agent in the economy,
外部性问题( Externality )
? To obtain efficient output level of
good which generates a negative
externality,needs to consider TSC,
Total social cost =
private production cost +
external cost imposed on others
Negative Externality ——
Example of steel,
Total social cost = Total private cost +
Total external cost
? Efficient output level of steel
Maximize net benefit = Gross benefit –
Total social cost;
where MB (Q*) = MSC (Q*)
Negative Externality ——
Example of steel,
? Market equilibrium,(Q^,P^)
? P^ ≠ MSC or MB ≠ MSC
? Q^ > Q*
MSC (Q)
MPC(Q)
Environmental cost
Q* Q^
P^
Deadweight loss due to
extra production MB
P*
VALUING BENEFITS AND
COSTS IN SECONDARY
MARKETS
? Valuing Benefits and Costs in
Undistorted Secondary Markets
? Valuing Benefits and Cost in Distorted
Secondary Markets
Conclusion 1,
如果初级市场上的福利 ( 剩余 ) 的变
化得到充分计量, 而次级市场上不
存在扭曲, 那么, 无论次级市场是
否发生价格变化, 都不必再考虑次
级市场 。
Conclusion 2,
? 对于存在市场扭曲的次级市场, 如存在
环境污染, 消费税征收等,应当测算所有
的次级市场上发生的社会剩余的变化 。
但如果引发的社会剩余变化不大, 也可
忽略 。
三、对, 非市场物品, 的价值
评估
Valuation on Nonmarket items,
Benefit/cost associated with unmarketed
output or inputs,such as,time,pollution,
ecological value—biodiversity,
recreational facilities,the value of saving
life,et.al
EX,Value of the saving of a
―statistical life‖
? Maximum amount that would be paid
by the members of society to secure an
increase in the number of ―statistical
lifes‖
EX,Value of the saving of a
―statistical life‖
―Status quo‖,
? M users,
? m1 member of users are expected to die,
? m1< M
? probability of a death= m1/M
EX,Value of the saving of a
―statistical life‖
with a project, M users
? m2,number of users expected to die
? m2< m1
? let Δm=m1 – m2
(number of expected deaths prevented)
? Reduction in the probability of death =Δm/M
EX,Value of the saving of a
―statistical life‖
? Suppose Average person’s willingness
to pay (WTP) is $X,
? Total WTP by society, M.X to save Δm
statistical lives,
? Value of life save =M.X/Δm= X/(Δm/M)
EX,Value of the saving of a
―statistical life‖
e.g,
? Δ m/M = 0.0001
? Average person’s WTP is,X = $100
? Then,Value of the saving of a
―statistical life‖ is,
X/(Δm/M) = 100/0.0001 = $ 1,000,000
Pollution
——Hedonic Pricing Method
? Assumes that the price a market good
is the value placed on the ―bundle of
characteristics‖ provided by a unit of
the good,
? Use regression techniques to infer
implicit valuation of characteristic
Pollution and Time saving
——Hedonic Pricing Method
? Housing Market,
? Two identical houses except for location,
? House 1, located far away from an airport;
? House 2, located nearby an airport (noise
generated in airport)
? Differential in property value of the two
houses, ΔP=P1-P2
ΔP >0
Noise pollution is ―bad‖,
四、不确定问题 ——
期望值 &敏感性分析
Dealing with uncertainty
——Expected Value and Sensitivity Analysis
Expected Value
? Simple example,
? Simple lottery,
Win $Y1 with probability P
Win $Y2 with probability (1-P),
Y2 > Y1
? Expected value = P.Y1 +(1-P)Y2
Expected Value
——Expected utility hypothesis
? Expected Utility EU = P,U(Y1) + (1-P).U(Y2)
U(Y1) – Utility of outcome Y1
U(Y2) – Utility of outcome Y2,
Note,U(Y),utility of income,
Diminishing marginal utility,
Expected Value
——Expected utility hypothesis
Y (income)
U(Y)
U(Y)
Y1 CE Y~ Y2
U(Y2)
U(Y~ )
P.U(Y1)+(1-P).U(Y2)
U(Y1) EU,Expected Utility
?Let Y~ =P Y1 +(1-P)Y2
Expected Value
——Expected utility hypothesis
? Risk aversion and Decision making under
uncertainty,
? A consumer is ―Risk-Aversion‖ if,
U(Y~) > P.U(Y1) + (1-P).U(Y2) or
U(Y~) > EU
(means he loves outcome for sure,dislike
outcome not for sure)
Expected Value
——Expected utility hypothesis
? Certainty Equivalent (CE)
Question,what level of income for certain
would make the consumer indifferent to the
risk situation (Y1 with probability P and Y2
with probability (1-P))?
? Answer,CE,
? U(CE) = P, U(Y1) + (1-P), U(Y2) = EU
? For risk aversion people,CE< Y~
For Cost-benefit Analysis,
? NB, net benefit,
outcome 1,Expected Value= P.NB1 + (1-P).NB2
outcome 2,Certainty Equivalent
NB1
NB2
P
1-P
For Cost-benefit Analysis,
? In CBA,if people are risk averse,
Replace expected value with certainty
equivalent,
Time
Expected net
benefit
Certainty
equivalent
Time
discount
factor
Discounted value
of CE = net benefit
0
-100
-100
1
-100
1
+100
90
0.91
81.9
2
+100
80
0.83
66.4
3
+100
75
0.75
56.25
Sensitivity Analysis
-12%
-10%
-8%
-6%
-4%
-2%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
50%20%10%0%-10%-20%-50%
投资变动幅度
生态系统健康
状况变化率
水 大气
能源 固废
生态建设 城市建设
人口 产业结构调整
GROUP WORK,
作业要求,
? 数据和分析情景可以自行假定,但要符合逻辑和一般
经验,并且完备;
? 分析步骤要完整、规范
? 分析方法、计算过程要具体
? 报告的必备要素,
? 对分析对象的描述、分析目的、范围(时间、空间);
? 分析方法选择
? 分析数据的准备(收集、整理等)
? 分析过程
? 分析结果与结果讨论
? 提示,excel 有计算 NPV和 IRR的功能
备选分析题
? 1.淮河水环境质量改善的 CBA,
在淮河流域对 100家造纸厂进行关停。提示:造纸厂可以提供就
业、地方财政收入等效益。
? 2.双秀公园改建项目的 CBA,
为改善北三环的道路拥挤状况,市政当局计划在双秀公园所在地
修建一座立交桥,将要占用双秀公园一半的面积。
? 3.松山森林公园煤矿开发的 CBA
松山发现了一个含低硫煤的煤矿,考虑是否应当进行开采。
? 4,干旱地区引水灌溉工程项目的 CBA,
某地区干旱少雨, 当地农业生产受干旱影响严重 。 当地抽取地
下水灌溉农田, 导致地下水位逐年降低 。 为解决农田用水问题, 当
地政府拟出资修建引水灌溉工程, 利用邻近的黄河水灌溉农田 。
作业要求,
? 分组完成(四人一组),自由选题
? 一周后,各组派出 2名代表进行报告,每
组报告时间总长总共 20分钟,报告 15分
钟,答疑 5分钟;
? 进行评比,优胜有奖;
? 报告完毕提交报告。