七、现代经济发展理论
Modern Economic Development Theories
假设:科学技术进步、工业化、经济增长是发展目标
欧美发展模式是可借鉴的
Assumption,development objectives— technology
progress,industrialization,economic growth and models
in Europe and America could be used as references
? 资本积累和工业化理论 Theories on industrialization
and capital accumulation
? 二元经济理论 Theory on Dual-Economy
? 依附理论 Theory of Dependency Development
Economics
I Theories
(一)哈罗德 -多马经济增长模型
Harrod-Domar Economic Growth Model (Neo-classical
Growth)
1、中心问题 Central question
一个国家在长时期内的国民收入和就业的稳定均衡增长
所需要的收入增长条件? What is the rate of income growth
necessary for smooth economic development?
2、理论的假定前提 Strong assumptions
全社会所生产的产品只有一种,消费品或资本品 one
product in all society,consumption goods or capital goods
只有劳动和资本两种生产要素 two production factors-labor
and capital
就业均衡 initial full employment equilibrium
产品的规模收益不变 stable of scaled revenue of the
products
不存在技术进步 without technology progress
3、结论 Conclusions
Domar,为了实现充分就业的经济增长,要求, For full
employment growth rate,it is required that g=dl=аδ (rate of net
investment)
g,full employment growth rate; а,边际储蓄率 product of the
marginal propensity to save; δ,边际资本生产率 marginal
productivity of capital
Harrod,Gw=s/C (Gw,有保证的增长率 Warranted rate of Growth
then to actual rate of growth; s,储蓄率 saving rate,C,边际资本产
出率 incremental capital-output ratio)
资本存量第一重要而忽视其他因素 concern only capital stock
but dministrative,managerial or institutional were ignored
(二)罗斯托增长理论 -- 起飞理论
The Rostowian Stages-of-growth Theory:Take-off Theory
发展的线性历史过程 Liner process of development
( 罗斯托,1960,经济增长的阶段 ——非共产党宣言, A
Non-communist Manifesto)
The hearts and minds of the people of the Third World could be
won over of American capitalism through a Marshall Plan type
of foreign aid.
The lesson of economic history,i.e,Western experience… is that
the tricks of growth are not that difficult
Distinct time segments,characterized by different sources and
patterns of economic changes and it is a specific succession of
these segments,so that b cannot occur before a,or c before b.
1、传统社会阶段 The traditional society
现代科学革命之前的社会 before revolution of modern
technology
没有现代的科学和技术 traditional S&T
资源多配置在农业而不是工业 resources allocated in
Agriculture.
僵硬的社会结构,阻碍经济变革 stark social structure
生产力水平、生产率低下 low productivity
人均实际收入仅够维持生存 subsistence standard
Interlinked stages
turning points and leading sectors –essential elements
2、为起飞创造前提阶段 the preconditions for take-off
近代科学知识开始发挥作用 modern science and knowledge
金融机构开始出现;商业扩大;农业的贡献;近代工业开
始迅速发展 Financial institute,commercial sector; agricultural
surplus,modern industrial
政治上相应的变革,发展统一市场,维持一种财政制度,
资本积累 reform of politics,common market,fiscal system,
capital accumulation
时期:英国是第一个,大约经历 20-30年 Britain
3、起飞阶段 the take-off
The most important stage that is the launching pad of
accelerated capitalist growth,which means the rate of
economic growth could be deliberately accelerated
The take-off was defined ‘as requiring all three of the following
related conditions’:
提高生产性的投资率 a rise in the rate of productive
investment from say,5 percent or less to over 10 percent of
national/net national income
建立和扩展“主导部门” the development of one or more
substantial manufacturing sectors,with a high rate of growth
进行一些变革,有政治、社会和制度保证 the existence of
quick emergence of a political,social,and institutional
framework that exploits the impulses to expansion in the
modern sector 时期:大致为 30年。
4、向成熟推进阶段 the drive to maturity
主导部门:钢、新式船舰、化学品及现代工作母机等
leading sectors,steel,shipboard,chemical products,master
machine
人均收入持续增长,技术不断改进 persisting increase of
income,improvement of technology
经济结构:农业劳动力比例从 40%降到 20% economic
structure
时期:发达国家经过 40多年;一些发展中国家,20世纪
60年代进入
5,群众性高额消费阶段 the age of mass consumption
主导部门:耐用消费品和服务业方面 durables
资源结构:日益增大的资源用来生产耐用消费品和劳务;
技术工人在劳动中的比率、城市居民在总人口中的比率
上升;供社会福利及保障的资源增大 resource structures
时期:美国始于 1913-1914年福特汽车公司开始采用自动
装配线时;西欧和日本则在 20世纪 50年代进入这一阶段
Ford assembly line
6,追求生活质量阶段 the drive to high quality of life
主导部门:以服务业为代表的提高居民“生活质量”
的有关部门(包括教育、市政、保健、环境、旅游等)
leading sector,service sectors focusing on improving
living standard
7,对起飞理论的理解 Understanding of take-off theory
? 生产能力增长的关键:主导部门 manufacturing as the
leading sector
? 投资与增长的关系 the investment ratio
? 政治与社会制度变革 state capitalism,far from advocating
reliance on market forces,but legitimizing state intervention in
third world development
? 影响援助计划的形成 based on planning and foreign aid
(三)均衡(平衡)增长理论 Balanced growth
1、贫困恶性循环理论 Vicious circles of poverty
罗格纳 ?纳克斯 1953年, 不发达国家的资本形成,
长期贫困的原因,不是因为资源不足,而是存在若干个
“恶性循环系列” reasons of poverty,a series of vicious
circles
主要是“贫困恶性循环”,即资本形成的供给与需求方
面的恶性循环 vicious circles of poverty is about the capital
formative process in the aspects of supply and demand
Solutions,Birth Control,Big-push
低收入 low income
低产出 low output
低生产率 low
productivity
低资本形成 capital
shortage or narrow
capital stock
低储蓄能力 low
saving rate
投资引诱不足 low
propensity to invest
低购买能力 limited
purchasing power
资本供给的恶性循环
Supply Side
资本需求的恶性循环
Demand Side
2、大推动理论 The Big push Theory of Industrializtion
罗森斯坦 -罗丹 Paul Rosenstein-Rodan (1943)
Industrialization is the way of achieving a more equal distribution of
income between different areas of the world by raising incomes in
depressed areas at a higher rate than in rich areas
发展中国家的特征:人口众多、劳动力剩余、收入低下
和资本投资规模太小 massive population,surplus labor,low
income and low investment
必须全面地大规模地在各个工业部门(尤其是基础设施
建设方面)投入资本,透过投资的“大推动”,来冲破
束缚,迅速实现工业化,达到经济增长等一系列目标
large-scale manufacturing and mega-projects,two sets of
criteria for Bigness,economies of scale and modern
technology
? 原因:三个 不可分性 three impartibilities
供给方面的不可分:社会分摊资本( Social
Overhead Capital) 供给的不可分 Supply
需求的不可分:一套互相联系的产业形成的市场
需求的不可分。要求克服市场“瓶颈” Demand
储蓄的不可分性:储蓄的增长是有阶段性的,只
有当收入的增长超过一定限度之后,储蓄才会急
剧上升。 Savings
? 意义 Implication
规模经济效益:成本降低;外在经济 The Economies of Scale,
internal (more efficient division of labor within a firm) and
external (cross-fertilization amongst firms in an industry)
? 不足 Failure
failed to replicate the European success story in the Third World
过分强调工业化和资本的作用 investment is not the only
component,e.g,human resources
社会分摊资本并非都是不可分的 questions of assumptions
大规模投资不切合实际 ignored questions of ownership of capital
imports from the West
忽略了增长中的分配问题 ignored question of distribution of
value-added generated in the growth process
Ulterior political and ideological motives
(四)涓流机制与不平衡增长理论 The trickle-down
Theory and Western Capitalism
Our subject matter is growth,not distribution,Lewis,1955
1,不公平有利于投资和增长
因为:富有使收入大部分用于储蓄和投资
穷人的收入多用于消费
储蓄和投资有利于增长
增长使收入通过市场机制下渗
Accelerated economic growth would filter down and spread
across,bringing the benefits of capitalist growth to the
poorer segment of developing societies.
2、集中投资于有最多联系效应的产业
优势:通过外部经济和联系效应创造投资机会
所以:加强产业内部的联系;增长点的形成
Interlink among industries,Growth Poles
3、收入差距:增加、持平、下降
扶贫只是发展框架中很不受重视的一部分,资源禀赋
也没有得到考虑,节约劳动的进口替代技术被推崇
Relegated poverty alleviation to the bottom of the
development agenda and with total disregard of the
inherent factor-endowments of LDCs,encourages labor-
saving import substitution industrialization (ISI)
technologies.
Disenchantment with the ‘Trickle-down’ Theory
Empirical evidence from developing countries,Western
economic development theory was not working as expected.
-- the gap widening between the first and third world
-- domestic inequality between the rich and poor within
developing countries
Four major signs of concern about it:
-- rural exodus and the emergence of informal sectors
mushroomed around overcrowded,subhuman settlements in
shanty-towns and slums
--worsening unemployment problems in the wake of capital-
intensive industrialization
-- increasing poverty and social injustice
-- gender-bias of Western mainstream theories of development
4、增长极的形成(增长极理论)
Growth Pole
弗朗索瓦 ?佩尔鲁克斯
在不同时期,经济增长的势头不会在所
有地区和部门同时出现,而是集中在某
些具有创新能力的行业和主导产业部门,
而这些部门和行业通常集聚在大城市中
心,从而形成发展极。
政策主张:区域发展模式 ——资源配置应该集
中在发展极
投资的着眼点在于与其未来的创新会形成的心
的和超常规的收益。发展极的“扩散效应”通
过技术、管理、资本、信息等载体把增长的势
头从发展极向周边地区扩散,或从一个产业向
另一个产业扩散。
(五)二元经济:刘易斯两部门模型 Economic
Dualism,The Lewis Two-sector Model
1、二元经济状态 Variants of Dualism
现代资本主义工业部门和传统农业部门
the coexistence of ‘traditional’ (indigenous=primitive) and ‘modern’
(western=productive) techniques of production,Modern techniques are
American or European,capital-intensive,labeled ‘modern sector’,in
contrast to backward agriculture or rural sector
-- technological dualism (traditional and American way)
-- financial dualism (Hla Myint,1971)
-- organizational dualism (1985)
2、刘易斯两部门模型:劳动力从传统部门向现代工业部
门的流动 Lewis two-sector model most influential postwar
dualistic theory of economic development
Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor 1954
Rural sector,source of underdevelopment; modern sector,
the engine of economic growth
农业剩余劳动力转移的作用 Labor-surplus economy
工业部门的前提:劳动密集;较高工资水平;劳动力被雇
佣的条件是边际产品与工资相等 presupposition of capitalist
sector,labor-intensive,higher wage,precondition of
employment,marginal products is equal to wages
农业部门的工资将开始上升,并导致工业部门的工资上升,
经济进入自我持续增长的新阶段
农业部门的剩余对发展的贡献 The level of wages in the
capitalist sector depends upon the earnings in the subsistence
sector
Complementary of Fei and Ranis
3、经济发展的工业化路径 Industrialization of
economic development
现代化部门扩大,传统部门缩小 Expansion
of Modern sector,capitalist accumulation through
pro-urban industrialization dependent on capital
imports from the West
农业现代化(发挥农业的作用)
Modernization of agriculture
(六)舒尔茨农业经济发展理论 Agricultural
Development
舒尔茨 1964,改造传统农业, Schults
1、传统农业的特征 Traditional Agricultural
小农的理性选择 rational choices of peasants
劳动的边际生产率不等于零 Marginal productivity of labor
is not zero
投资的收益率很低 low return of investment
2、把传统农业改造成为现代农业的措施 Modernization of
agriculture
健全的价格体系 price mechanism
政府大力推广农业科学技术 extension of agri,technology
发展教育,提高农民的文化技术水平 education
取消大农场,推广家庭农场 family farm
(七)两缺口模型 Two-gap Theory
钱纳里和布鲁诺 Chenery and Bruno,1962,1966
1,基本框架 central logic of the model- aggregate
income=aggregate expenditure
Y=C+I+(X-M)
Y-总收入 aggregate income,C-总消费 total consumption,I-总
投资 total investment,X和 M各代表出口总值和进口总值
expenditures on export and imports,(X-M) 为外贸纯收入 Net
income of foreign trade
Y can be defined as savings S plus C
I – S = M – X
储蓄缺口 Domestic savings gap 外汇缺口 foreign exchange gap
2,应用 utilization
作为计划技术加以应用,分析消费者、储蓄者、投资者、进
口者、出口者的愿望并根据实际情况试图影响这些愿望
As a planning technique,the two-gap theory was utilized by
planners to analyze the independent desires of consumers/savers,
investors,importers and exporters and to attempt to influence
their desires in the light of domestic economic realities in
conjunction with external economic circumstances
价格政策:汇率 exchange rate
税收政策 tax incentives
利率政策 interest rate policies
3、两缺口的调整和平衡 Balance of two-gap
? 消极调整:减少投资弥补储蓄缺口; negative adjustment
或减少进口(进口替代)弥补外汇缺口
? 平衡两缺口的积极行动:引进外资 positive adjustment
? 效应:供给 --进口资源不需增加出口支付减轻外汇压力
需求 --投资不需国内储蓄提供,减轻储蓄压力
Effects,supply and demand
? 长远:助长出口、提高储蓄、增强自我发展
Long-term impacts
(八)进口替代、出口促进及幼稚工业论,ISI,Export
Promotion and Infant Industry
普雷维什 -辛格假说,Raoul Prebisch’s and Hans Singer,
Prebisch-Singer Hypothesis,1950
1、中心 -外围的结构分析方法 Center-periphery
中心:制成品生产 center,finished products
外围:初级产品生产 periphery,primary products
外围国家初级产品贸易条件不断恶化 worsening terms of
trade in periphery countries
外围国家的社会基础“特权消费社会”同中心引进的制
度发生尖锐矛盾。剩余不能改善收入分配。 Privilege
society is contradicted to market system
2、政策建议 Policy suggestions
实施进口替代工业化的战略,有节制有选择的保护政
策 ISI strategy,promote domestic industry in developing
countries under state protection and subsidy
实施经济计划,扩大政府对基础设施的投资
Economic Planning and increase government investment
on infrastructure
承认大企业私人占有关系的前提下,把经营权交给国
家 Hand over the management power to the State with
the admission of private-owner enterprises
并对此类企业征收高额税金,扩大就业机会,增加需
求,实现经济增长 high tax
(九)激进发展理论 Radical Theories
20世纪 60年代后期,萨米尔 ?阿明、安德诺 ?弗兰
克、奥斯瓦尔多 ?桑克尔、桑托斯、费尔南多 ?卡
尔多索等
1、依附论 Dependency Theory
中心具有技术资金优势,而外围经济技术落后的
情况下,外围国家为实行工业化依靠中心资金技
术,形成依附,同时造成外围国家的不发达
三种形式:殖民依附;金融 -工业依附;技术 -工
业依附
2、政策建议 Policy recommendations
---- 建立社会主义体系 socialism system
---- 与现存国际体系脱钩 separate from international
system
选择以本国资源为基础的自力更生发展道路;优先考
虑发展中国家之间的合作与经济一体化;建立国际经
济新秩序 self-reliance development; integration of
economy in developing counties; New international
economic order
(十)卡尔 ·马克思的发展思想 Karl Marx
? 根据不同利益群体之间的冲突分析历史和现实社会;
? 被压迫阶级是促进社会发展的主力;克服异化现象;
? 辨证的发展模式 -- 内在冲突模式 Dialectical
? 五种主要阶级社会类型,最终自我实现取代异化
self-realization substitute dissimilation
? 社会总资本的扩大再生产模型
八、当代经济发展理论
Contemporary economic development theories
制度因素、文化和社会因素等在发展中的作用
发展的主体:社会和人,包括弱者
背景,background
新经济秩序 new economic order
亚洲四小龙 four dragons
四小龙的沉浮 The NIC challenge,the rise and fall of the
Asian Dragons
亚洲货币体系的崩溃 The Asian currency collapse
(一)新制度主义思想 The new institutionalism
20世纪 70年代,经济增长模式唯一性的假设受到挑战
乡土政治和制度的社会效率解释经济发展的差异
经济发展的制度诱导
Development is seen as a process induced by institutional efficiency; that is to
say,a set of favorable legal and institutional environments and not just
accumulation or allocation of factors of production in markets
Institutions are a set’ rules,enforcement characteristics of rules and norms of behavior that
structure repeated human interactions.
强权国家理论、产权理论、寻租行为理论
the predatory state,the state as an org,with a comparative advantage in
violence but can trade services for taxation revenue Douglas North 1981
Property rights,Ruttan and Hayami 1984 successful agri,Development
requires laws which regulate property rights based on clear titles
Rent-seeking behavior,by-products of public choice theory J.M,Buchanan
1980
(二)新古典主义的结构调整
Debt,deficit and structural adjustment
发展中国家的政府失灵 government failure in
developing countries
结构调整和稳定 structure adjustment and stability
市场机制的作用 the role of marketing system
(三)可持续发展思想 sustainable development
目标:增强能满足人类需求的当前和未来的潜力;
本土发展、公平、经济增长、人类其它愿望
的和谐
过程:通过资源开发、投资选择、技术发展选择、
制度改变
(四)以人力资本为基础的新增长理论
Endogenous development,human capital
revisited
? 人力资本理论对大多发展中国家无影响
? 亚洲新工业化国家的教育创新
? 投资于技能和企业家教育的理论应该是优先选择
(五)综合经济发展范式 Integrated
Economic development Paradigm
1、背景:政治经济的全球化
? Globalization of politics and economy
2、发展:一种社会转型 --传统关系、传统思维方式、
传统健康和教育途径、传统生产方法向更
“现代”的方式转变
Development,social transformation from traditional
relationship,thinking approach,health and
education approach to modern approach
3、与传统经济发展范式的冲突
Conflicts comparing with traditional paradigm
? 发展是与民主、分权相联系的美好生活;好只是生活质
量,有不同定义;全球经济发展并不意味着唯一的全球经
济的提高的结果
? 发展从个人层次开始;从没有权利、脆弱、物质匮乏、
精神贫困、孤立,到赋权、安全、健康、富裕以及被关注
? 发展中的学习与分享
? 多中心、自我组织
4、成功的发展战略中关键因素:拥有感和参与
Ownership and participation
? 有效的变化不能通过外部强加
? 发展的核心是思维方式的变化
? 社会资本极其重要,发展不仅是政府和援助者的事情
? 制度、激励、参与和拥有是一个整体
5、经济发展战略要素 Elements of strategy
资源:物质资本、人力资本、自然资源
经济管理:政策的社会成本等要加以考虑
知识管理:知识与资本的相互补充
社会和组织资本:旧的社会资本的破坏和新的社会
资本的建立 --内部形成
能力建设:易 -提供人力资本、教育、技能、发展等
所需知识
不易 -社会资本发展,包括使社会良好运
转的体制
6、发展战略的系统框架 Systematic frame
设立优先序 priority setting
鼓励合作:政府、私营部门、公民社会之间
cooperation
考虑全球和区域环境:信息、市场、环境等
international environment
Modern Economic Development Theories
假设:科学技术进步、工业化、经济增长是发展目标
欧美发展模式是可借鉴的
Assumption,development objectives— technology
progress,industrialization,economic growth and models
in Europe and America could be used as references
? 资本积累和工业化理论 Theories on industrialization
and capital accumulation
? 二元经济理论 Theory on Dual-Economy
? 依附理论 Theory of Dependency Development
Economics
I Theories
(一)哈罗德 -多马经济增长模型
Harrod-Domar Economic Growth Model (Neo-classical
Growth)
1、中心问题 Central question
一个国家在长时期内的国民收入和就业的稳定均衡增长
所需要的收入增长条件? What is the rate of income growth
necessary for smooth economic development?
2、理论的假定前提 Strong assumptions
全社会所生产的产品只有一种,消费品或资本品 one
product in all society,consumption goods or capital goods
只有劳动和资本两种生产要素 two production factors-labor
and capital
就业均衡 initial full employment equilibrium
产品的规模收益不变 stable of scaled revenue of the
products
不存在技术进步 without technology progress
3、结论 Conclusions
Domar,为了实现充分就业的经济增长,要求, For full
employment growth rate,it is required that g=dl=аδ (rate of net
investment)
g,full employment growth rate; а,边际储蓄率 product of the
marginal propensity to save; δ,边际资本生产率 marginal
productivity of capital
Harrod,Gw=s/C (Gw,有保证的增长率 Warranted rate of Growth
then to actual rate of growth; s,储蓄率 saving rate,C,边际资本产
出率 incremental capital-output ratio)
资本存量第一重要而忽视其他因素 concern only capital stock
but dministrative,managerial or institutional were ignored
(二)罗斯托增长理论 -- 起飞理论
The Rostowian Stages-of-growth Theory:Take-off Theory
发展的线性历史过程 Liner process of development
( 罗斯托,1960,经济增长的阶段 ——非共产党宣言, A
Non-communist Manifesto)
The hearts and minds of the people of the Third World could be
won over of American capitalism through a Marshall Plan type
of foreign aid.
The lesson of economic history,i.e,Western experience… is that
the tricks of growth are not that difficult
Distinct time segments,characterized by different sources and
patterns of economic changes and it is a specific succession of
these segments,so that b cannot occur before a,or c before b.
1、传统社会阶段 The traditional society
现代科学革命之前的社会 before revolution of modern
technology
没有现代的科学和技术 traditional S&T
资源多配置在农业而不是工业 resources allocated in
Agriculture.
僵硬的社会结构,阻碍经济变革 stark social structure
生产力水平、生产率低下 low productivity
人均实际收入仅够维持生存 subsistence standard
Interlinked stages
turning points and leading sectors –essential elements
2、为起飞创造前提阶段 the preconditions for take-off
近代科学知识开始发挥作用 modern science and knowledge
金融机构开始出现;商业扩大;农业的贡献;近代工业开
始迅速发展 Financial institute,commercial sector; agricultural
surplus,modern industrial
政治上相应的变革,发展统一市场,维持一种财政制度,
资本积累 reform of politics,common market,fiscal system,
capital accumulation
时期:英国是第一个,大约经历 20-30年 Britain
3、起飞阶段 the take-off
The most important stage that is the launching pad of
accelerated capitalist growth,which means the rate of
economic growth could be deliberately accelerated
The take-off was defined ‘as requiring all three of the following
related conditions’:
提高生产性的投资率 a rise in the rate of productive
investment from say,5 percent or less to over 10 percent of
national/net national income
建立和扩展“主导部门” the development of one or more
substantial manufacturing sectors,with a high rate of growth
进行一些变革,有政治、社会和制度保证 the existence of
quick emergence of a political,social,and institutional
framework that exploits the impulses to expansion in the
modern sector 时期:大致为 30年。
4、向成熟推进阶段 the drive to maturity
主导部门:钢、新式船舰、化学品及现代工作母机等
leading sectors,steel,shipboard,chemical products,master
machine
人均收入持续增长,技术不断改进 persisting increase of
income,improvement of technology
经济结构:农业劳动力比例从 40%降到 20% economic
structure
时期:发达国家经过 40多年;一些发展中国家,20世纪
60年代进入
5,群众性高额消费阶段 the age of mass consumption
主导部门:耐用消费品和服务业方面 durables
资源结构:日益增大的资源用来生产耐用消费品和劳务;
技术工人在劳动中的比率、城市居民在总人口中的比率
上升;供社会福利及保障的资源增大 resource structures
时期:美国始于 1913-1914年福特汽车公司开始采用自动
装配线时;西欧和日本则在 20世纪 50年代进入这一阶段
Ford assembly line
6,追求生活质量阶段 the drive to high quality of life
主导部门:以服务业为代表的提高居民“生活质量”
的有关部门(包括教育、市政、保健、环境、旅游等)
leading sector,service sectors focusing on improving
living standard
7,对起飞理论的理解 Understanding of take-off theory
? 生产能力增长的关键:主导部门 manufacturing as the
leading sector
? 投资与增长的关系 the investment ratio
? 政治与社会制度变革 state capitalism,far from advocating
reliance on market forces,but legitimizing state intervention in
third world development
? 影响援助计划的形成 based on planning and foreign aid
(三)均衡(平衡)增长理论 Balanced growth
1、贫困恶性循环理论 Vicious circles of poverty
罗格纳 ?纳克斯 1953年, 不发达国家的资本形成,
长期贫困的原因,不是因为资源不足,而是存在若干个
“恶性循环系列” reasons of poverty,a series of vicious
circles
主要是“贫困恶性循环”,即资本形成的供给与需求方
面的恶性循环 vicious circles of poverty is about the capital
formative process in the aspects of supply and demand
Solutions,Birth Control,Big-push
低收入 low income
低产出 low output
低生产率 low
productivity
低资本形成 capital
shortage or narrow
capital stock
低储蓄能力 low
saving rate
投资引诱不足 low
propensity to invest
低购买能力 limited
purchasing power
资本供给的恶性循环
Supply Side
资本需求的恶性循环
Demand Side
2、大推动理论 The Big push Theory of Industrializtion
罗森斯坦 -罗丹 Paul Rosenstein-Rodan (1943)
Industrialization is the way of achieving a more equal distribution of
income between different areas of the world by raising incomes in
depressed areas at a higher rate than in rich areas
发展中国家的特征:人口众多、劳动力剩余、收入低下
和资本投资规模太小 massive population,surplus labor,low
income and low investment
必须全面地大规模地在各个工业部门(尤其是基础设施
建设方面)投入资本,透过投资的“大推动”,来冲破
束缚,迅速实现工业化,达到经济增长等一系列目标
large-scale manufacturing and mega-projects,two sets of
criteria for Bigness,economies of scale and modern
technology
? 原因:三个 不可分性 three impartibilities
供给方面的不可分:社会分摊资本( Social
Overhead Capital) 供给的不可分 Supply
需求的不可分:一套互相联系的产业形成的市场
需求的不可分。要求克服市场“瓶颈” Demand
储蓄的不可分性:储蓄的增长是有阶段性的,只
有当收入的增长超过一定限度之后,储蓄才会急
剧上升。 Savings
? 意义 Implication
规模经济效益:成本降低;外在经济 The Economies of Scale,
internal (more efficient division of labor within a firm) and
external (cross-fertilization amongst firms in an industry)
? 不足 Failure
failed to replicate the European success story in the Third World
过分强调工业化和资本的作用 investment is not the only
component,e.g,human resources
社会分摊资本并非都是不可分的 questions of assumptions
大规模投资不切合实际 ignored questions of ownership of capital
imports from the West
忽略了增长中的分配问题 ignored question of distribution of
value-added generated in the growth process
Ulterior political and ideological motives
(四)涓流机制与不平衡增长理论 The trickle-down
Theory and Western Capitalism
Our subject matter is growth,not distribution,Lewis,1955
1,不公平有利于投资和增长
因为:富有使收入大部分用于储蓄和投资
穷人的收入多用于消费
储蓄和投资有利于增长
增长使收入通过市场机制下渗
Accelerated economic growth would filter down and spread
across,bringing the benefits of capitalist growth to the
poorer segment of developing societies.
2、集中投资于有最多联系效应的产业
优势:通过外部经济和联系效应创造投资机会
所以:加强产业内部的联系;增长点的形成
Interlink among industries,Growth Poles
3、收入差距:增加、持平、下降
扶贫只是发展框架中很不受重视的一部分,资源禀赋
也没有得到考虑,节约劳动的进口替代技术被推崇
Relegated poverty alleviation to the bottom of the
development agenda and with total disregard of the
inherent factor-endowments of LDCs,encourages labor-
saving import substitution industrialization (ISI)
technologies.
Disenchantment with the ‘Trickle-down’ Theory
Empirical evidence from developing countries,Western
economic development theory was not working as expected.
-- the gap widening between the first and third world
-- domestic inequality between the rich and poor within
developing countries
Four major signs of concern about it:
-- rural exodus and the emergence of informal sectors
mushroomed around overcrowded,subhuman settlements in
shanty-towns and slums
--worsening unemployment problems in the wake of capital-
intensive industrialization
-- increasing poverty and social injustice
-- gender-bias of Western mainstream theories of development
4、增长极的形成(增长极理论)
Growth Pole
弗朗索瓦 ?佩尔鲁克斯
在不同时期,经济增长的势头不会在所
有地区和部门同时出现,而是集中在某
些具有创新能力的行业和主导产业部门,
而这些部门和行业通常集聚在大城市中
心,从而形成发展极。
政策主张:区域发展模式 ——资源配置应该集
中在发展极
投资的着眼点在于与其未来的创新会形成的心
的和超常规的收益。发展极的“扩散效应”通
过技术、管理、资本、信息等载体把增长的势
头从发展极向周边地区扩散,或从一个产业向
另一个产业扩散。
(五)二元经济:刘易斯两部门模型 Economic
Dualism,The Lewis Two-sector Model
1、二元经济状态 Variants of Dualism
现代资本主义工业部门和传统农业部门
the coexistence of ‘traditional’ (indigenous=primitive) and ‘modern’
(western=productive) techniques of production,Modern techniques are
American or European,capital-intensive,labeled ‘modern sector’,in
contrast to backward agriculture or rural sector
-- technological dualism (traditional and American way)
-- financial dualism (Hla Myint,1971)
-- organizational dualism (1985)
2、刘易斯两部门模型:劳动力从传统部门向现代工业部
门的流动 Lewis two-sector model most influential postwar
dualistic theory of economic development
Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor 1954
Rural sector,source of underdevelopment; modern sector,
the engine of economic growth
农业剩余劳动力转移的作用 Labor-surplus economy
工业部门的前提:劳动密集;较高工资水平;劳动力被雇
佣的条件是边际产品与工资相等 presupposition of capitalist
sector,labor-intensive,higher wage,precondition of
employment,marginal products is equal to wages
农业部门的工资将开始上升,并导致工业部门的工资上升,
经济进入自我持续增长的新阶段
农业部门的剩余对发展的贡献 The level of wages in the
capitalist sector depends upon the earnings in the subsistence
sector
Complementary of Fei and Ranis
3、经济发展的工业化路径 Industrialization of
economic development
现代化部门扩大,传统部门缩小 Expansion
of Modern sector,capitalist accumulation through
pro-urban industrialization dependent on capital
imports from the West
农业现代化(发挥农业的作用)
Modernization of agriculture
(六)舒尔茨农业经济发展理论 Agricultural
Development
舒尔茨 1964,改造传统农业, Schults
1、传统农业的特征 Traditional Agricultural
小农的理性选择 rational choices of peasants
劳动的边际生产率不等于零 Marginal productivity of labor
is not zero
投资的收益率很低 low return of investment
2、把传统农业改造成为现代农业的措施 Modernization of
agriculture
健全的价格体系 price mechanism
政府大力推广农业科学技术 extension of agri,technology
发展教育,提高农民的文化技术水平 education
取消大农场,推广家庭农场 family farm
(七)两缺口模型 Two-gap Theory
钱纳里和布鲁诺 Chenery and Bruno,1962,1966
1,基本框架 central logic of the model- aggregate
income=aggregate expenditure
Y=C+I+(X-M)
Y-总收入 aggregate income,C-总消费 total consumption,I-总
投资 total investment,X和 M各代表出口总值和进口总值
expenditures on export and imports,(X-M) 为外贸纯收入 Net
income of foreign trade
Y can be defined as savings S plus C
I – S = M – X
储蓄缺口 Domestic savings gap 外汇缺口 foreign exchange gap
2,应用 utilization
作为计划技术加以应用,分析消费者、储蓄者、投资者、进
口者、出口者的愿望并根据实际情况试图影响这些愿望
As a planning technique,the two-gap theory was utilized by
planners to analyze the independent desires of consumers/savers,
investors,importers and exporters and to attempt to influence
their desires in the light of domestic economic realities in
conjunction with external economic circumstances
价格政策:汇率 exchange rate
税收政策 tax incentives
利率政策 interest rate policies
3、两缺口的调整和平衡 Balance of two-gap
? 消极调整:减少投资弥补储蓄缺口; negative adjustment
或减少进口(进口替代)弥补外汇缺口
? 平衡两缺口的积极行动:引进外资 positive adjustment
? 效应:供给 --进口资源不需增加出口支付减轻外汇压力
需求 --投资不需国内储蓄提供,减轻储蓄压力
Effects,supply and demand
? 长远:助长出口、提高储蓄、增强自我发展
Long-term impacts
(八)进口替代、出口促进及幼稚工业论,ISI,Export
Promotion and Infant Industry
普雷维什 -辛格假说,Raoul Prebisch’s and Hans Singer,
Prebisch-Singer Hypothesis,1950
1、中心 -外围的结构分析方法 Center-periphery
中心:制成品生产 center,finished products
外围:初级产品生产 periphery,primary products
外围国家初级产品贸易条件不断恶化 worsening terms of
trade in periphery countries
外围国家的社会基础“特权消费社会”同中心引进的制
度发生尖锐矛盾。剩余不能改善收入分配。 Privilege
society is contradicted to market system
2、政策建议 Policy suggestions
实施进口替代工业化的战略,有节制有选择的保护政
策 ISI strategy,promote domestic industry in developing
countries under state protection and subsidy
实施经济计划,扩大政府对基础设施的投资
Economic Planning and increase government investment
on infrastructure
承认大企业私人占有关系的前提下,把经营权交给国
家 Hand over the management power to the State with
the admission of private-owner enterprises
并对此类企业征收高额税金,扩大就业机会,增加需
求,实现经济增长 high tax
(九)激进发展理论 Radical Theories
20世纪 60年代后期,萨米尔 ?阿明、安德诺 ?弗兰
克、奥斯瓦尔多 ?桑克尔、桑托斯、费尔南多 ?卡
尔多索等
1、依附论 Dependency Theory
中心具有技术资金优势,而外围经济技术落后的
情况下,外围国家为实行工业化依靠中心资金技
术,形成依附,同时造成外围国家的不发达
三种形式:殖民依附;金融 -工业依附;技术 -工
业依附
2、政策建议 Policy recommendations
---- 建立社会主义体系 socialism system
---- 与现存国际体系脱钩 separate from international
system
选择以本国资源为基础的自力更生发展道路;优先考
虑发展中国家之间的合作与经济一体化;建立国际经
济新秩序 self-reliance development; integration of
economy in developing counties; New international
economic order
(十)卡尔 ·马克思的发展思想 Karl Marx
? 根据不同利益群体之间的冲突分析历史和现实社会;
? 被压迫阶级是促进社会发展的主力;克服异化现象;
? 辨证的发展模式 -- 内在冲突模式 Dialectical
? 五种主要阶级社会类型,最终自我实现取代异化
self-realization substitute dissimilation
? 社会总资本的扩大再生产模型
八、当代经济发展理论
Contemporary economic development theories
制度因素、文化和社会因素等在发展中的作用
发展的主体:社会和人,包括弱者
背景,background
新经济秩序 new economic order
亚洲四小龙 four dragons
四小龙的沉浮 The NIC challenge,the rise and fall of the
Asian Dragons
亚洲货币体系的崩溃 The Asian currency collapse
(一)新制度主义思想 The new institutionalism
20世纪 70年代,经济增长模式唯一性的假设受到挑战
乡土政治和制度的社会效率解释经济发展的差异
经济发展的制度诱导
Development is seen as a process induced by institutional efficiency; that is to
say,a set of favorable legal and institutional environments and not just
accumulation or allocation of factors of production in markets
Institutions are a set’ rules,enforcement characteristics of rules and norms of behavior that
structure repeated human interactions.
强权国家理论、产权理论、寻租行为理论
the predatory state,the state as an org,with a comparative advantage in
violence but can trade services for taxation revenue Douglas North 1981
Property rights,Ruttan and Hayami 1984 successful agri,Development
requires laws which regulate property rights based on clear titles
Rent-seeking behavior,by-products of public choice theory J.M,Buchanan
1980
(二)新古典主义的结构调整
Debt,deficit and structural adjustment
发展中国家的政府失灵 government failure in
developing countries
结构调整和稳定 structure adjustment and stability
市场机制的作用 the role of marketing system
(三)可持续发展思想 sustainable development
目标:增强能满足人类需求的当前和未来的潜力;
本土发展、公平、经济增长、人类其它愿望
的和谐
过程:通过资源开发、投资选择、技术发展选择、
制度改变
(四)以人力资本为基础的新增长理论
Endogenous development,human capital
revisited
? 人力资本理论对大多发展中国家无影响
? 亚洲新工业化国家的教育创新
? 投资于技能和企业家教育的理论应该是优先选择
(五)综合经济发展范式 Integrated
Economic development Paradigm
1、背景:政治经济的全球化
? Globalization of politics and economy
2、发展:一种社会转型 --传统关系、传统思维方式、
传统健康和教育途径、传统生产方法向更
“现代”的方式转变
Development,social transformation from traditional
relationship,thinking approach,health and
education approach to modern approach
3、与传统经济发展范式的冲突
Conflicts comparing with traditional paradigm
? 发展是与民主、分权相联系的美好生活;好只是生活质
量,有不同定义;全球经济发展并不意味着唯一的全球经
济的提高的结果
? 发展从个人层次开始;从没有权利、脆弱、物质匮乏、
精神贫困、孤立,到赋权、安全、健康、富裕以及被关注
? 发展中的学习与分享
? 多中心、自我组织
4、成功的发展战略中关键因素:拥有感和参与
Ownership and participation
? 有效的变化不能通过外部强加
? 发展的核心是思维方式的变化
? 社会资本极其重要,发展不仅是政府和援助者的事情
? 制度、激励、参与和拥有是一个整体
5、经济发展战略要素 Elements of strategy
资源:物质资本、人力资本、自然资源
经济管理:政策的社会成本等要加以考虑
知识管理:知识与资本的相互补充
社会和组织资本:旧的社会资本的破坏和新的社会
资本的建立 --内部形成
能力建设:易 -提供人力资本、教育、技能、发展等
所需知识
不易 -社会资本发展,包括使社会良好运
转的体制
6、发展战略的系统框架 Systematic frame
设立优先序 priority setting
鼓励合作:政府、私营部门、公民社会之间
cooperation
考虑全球和区域环境:信息、市场、环境等
international environment