Radioactive Decay Mechanisms (cont.) Beta (β) Decay: Radioactive decay process in which the charge of the nucleus is changed without any change in the number of nucleons. There are three types of beta decay: ? βPP- decay ? β+ decay ? electron capture β_ decay Nuclides with excess neutrons need to convert a neutron to a proton to move closer to the line of stability. neutron → proton + negative electron + antineutrino  Conservation of charge and nucleons must be observed. The symbol ν represents the neutrino, and ν represents its antiparticle, the antineutrino. Example:  ? 60Co has too many neutrons to be stable. ? One of the 60Co neutrons is converted to a proton. An electron is created in the nucleus then ejected from the nucleus. β_ decay energetics Mass-energy conservation:  ? The β- decay e- leaves the nucleus. ? Another e- is required to take up an orbital position to balance the new charge (Z+1). ? There is no net gain or loss of electron masses in this reaction. No allowance needs to be made in the energy-mass calculations for e- shifts. Equivalent (from a mass-balance point of view) to MP = MD + Q, or Q = MP - MD [or Qβ- = Δ P -ΔD] For the example:  Use Δ values from App. D Q = -61.651 – (- 64.471) = 2.82 MeV Forβ- decay to be possible, MP > MD (i.e., Q = MP –MD) Any excess energy Q will be shared by the 3 decay products. β_ decay requirements (or what is a neutrino??) “Neutrinos, they are very small/ They have no charge and have no mass / And do not interact at all” “Cosmic Gall” John Updike, 1960 Early 1900s: Observations of beta decay puzzled investigators. ? They thought they were studying a 2-body decay process. ? This should produce electrons of a fixed energy. ? Same exact same β. reaction produced electrons with variable energy. ? It appeared as if energy were being destroyed. ? This violated Conservation of Energy. ? The ejected electron and the recoil nucleus did not move apart on a straight line. ? This violated Conservation of Momentum. Enter the neutrino: “I have done a terrible thing. I have postulated a particle that cannot be detected.” Wolfgang Pauli, 1930 ? To explain the apparent violations of momentum and energy, Pauli “invented” the neutrino, a particle of no charge and little or no mass that would carry away energy and momentum. ? Actually he proposed the name “neutron” (the neutron we know was discovered in 1932) Enrico Fermi proposed the name “neutrino: little neutral one” In 1956 the neutrino was first detected. ? Elaborate experimental detectors are required. ? Neutrinos have a very small, but non-zero, mass. ? Implications? ? Neutrinos are everywhere: fusion in the sun, reactors produce copious amounts of neutrinos. ? Billions of neutrinos pass through your body every second. ? Only a few interactions expected in a light-year thickness of lead!!! ? Neutrino mass is a big issue in cosmology. How is the energy, Q, distributed?  β_ decay produces three products, the daughter nucleus, the beta particle and the antineutrino. The daughter nucleus, because of its large mass, receives negligible energy. Q = E + E – β_ V The energy is shared between the beta particle and the antineutrino. Depending on the orientation, the particles can have any energy between 0 and Q. Thus, the beta particle energy spectrum is continuous 0 ≤ Eβ- ≤ 0 The average beta particle energy ~ Q/3 Beta decay scheme  60Co decay details from Turner, Appendix D β_ 0.318 max (99.92%) 1.491 max (0.08%) γ 1.173 (99.98%) 1.332 (99.90%) β+ Decay Nuclides that are excessively proton rich can decay by positive electron (positron) emission. The nuclide attempts to gain stability by increasing the N/Z ratio by conversion of a proton to a neutron. proton → neutron + positive electron + neutrino  β+ Decay Energetics ? β+ ejected from the nucleus: loss of 1 me ? The daughter Z-1 nucleus must shed an orbital electron to balance charge: loss of 1 me Net result is: MP → MD + 2 me + Q Note: two electron masses must be accounted for in the mass-energy calculations. β+ decay is energetically possible only if the mass of the parent atom exceeds the mass of the daughter atom by at least two electron masses (2 x 0.000549 AMU or its energy equivalent, 1.02 MeV). MP > MD + 2me MP = MD +2me + Q Q = MP - MD – 2me [or Qβ+ = Δ P -ΔD – 2me ] Example:  From App. D: Q = -5.182 – (-8.025) – 1.022 = 1.821 MeV Positron Imaging in Nuclear Medicine β+ is a positron, the antiparticle of the electron. Positron-electron annihilation releases two 0.511 MeV photons traveling in opposite directions. This is the basis of positron emission tomography (PET). Electron Capture ? Nuclide too proton rich for stability ? Positron emission (β+) decay not possible o (MP – MD < 1.022 MeV) Electron capture has the same effect on the nucleus as β+ decay.  proton + electron → neutron + neutrino ? An orbital electron is captured by the parent nucleus. ? Energy “spent” overcoming the electron binding energy, EB Products are the daughter nucleus and the neutrino.  Electron capture energetics: ? Mass-energy is conserved Compare the masses on both sides of the arrow. (me - EB) + MP = MD + Q MP - EB = MD + Q Q = MP - MD - EB [or QEC =ΔP –ΔD – EB Electron capture is only possible if ΔP - ΔD > EB. Electron capture produces only two reaction products (unlike β- and β+ decay). MD and the neutrino share the energy, move in opposite directions with the same momentum. Because of the mass difference, the (virtually undetectable) neutrino carries away almost all of the energy.  can decay by both EC and β+ pathways   Qβ+ = ΔP - ΔD – 2me = 1.821 MeV QEC = ΔP - ΔD – EB = 2.843 MeV Gamma Emission ? Spectrum is discrete, characteristic of element ? Many decay modes emit gamma rays from excited nuclear states Gamma emission with no change in Z or A = isomeric transition Metastable states Excited nuclear states usually decay in ~ < 10-10 sec Excited nuclear states with longer lifetimes termed metastable  ? halflife of 99mTc = 6 hrs ? the 0.14 MeV gamma emission is used in nuclear medicine imaging Internal Conversion ? Energy of excited nuclear state transferred to orbital electron ? Electron is ejected from the atom (K or L shell) IC is an alternative to gamma emission from the nucleus. Ne IC coefficient = [ratio of branching] Nr Ee = E* - EB Energy of the ejected electron = excitation energy – electron binding energy IC coefficient: increases as Z increases decreases as E* increases IC prevalent in heavy nuclei from low-lying excited nuclear states Summary of Decay Energetics  Decay Scheme Exercise  β- (89%) β- : 1.312 (max) EC ( 11%) γ: 1.461 (11%) Ar x rays