User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 378:26544#/eps at 100%*26544* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 379:23155#/eps at 100%*23155* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM part V Macroeconomic Policy Debates User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 380:24427#/eps at 100%*24427* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM How should government policymakers respond to the business cycle? The two quotations above—the first from a former chairman of the Federal Reserve, the second from a prominent critic of the Fed—show the diversity of opinion over how this question is best answered. Some economists, such as William McChesney Martin, view the economy as inherently unstable.They argue that the economy experiences frequent shocks to aggregate demand and aggregate supply. Unless policymakers use monetary and fiscal policy to stabilize the economy, these shocks will lead to unnecessary and inefficient fluctuations in output, unemployment, and inflation.According to the popular saying, macroeconomic policy should “lean against the wind,’’ stimulat- ing the economy when it is depressed and slowing the economy when it is over- heated. Other economists, such as Milton Friedman, view the economy as naturally stable. They blame bad economic policies for the large and inefficient fluctua- tions we have sometimes experienced.They argue that economic policy should not try to “fine-tune’’ the economy. Instead, economic policymakers should admit their limited abilities and be satisfied if they do no harm. This debate has persisted for decades, with numerous protagonists advancing various arguments for their positions.The fundamental issue is how policymak- ers should use the theory of short-run economic fluctuations developed in the 14 Stabilization Policy CHAPTER The Federal Reserve’s job is to take away the punch bowl just as the party gets going. — William McChesney Martin What we need is not a skilled monetary driver of the economic vehicle con- tinuously turning the steering wheel to adjust to the unexpected irregulari- ties of the route, but some means of keeping the monetary passenger who is in the back seat as ballast from occasionally leaning over and giving the steering wheel a jerk that threatens to send the car off the road. — Milton Friedman FOURTEEN 380 | User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 381:27867#/eps at 100%*27867* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM preceding chapters. In this chapter we ask two questions that arise in this debate. First, should monetary and fiscal policy take an active role in trying to stabilize the economy, or should policy remain passive? Second, should policymakers be free to use their discretion in responding to changing economic conditions, or should they be committed to following a fixed policy rule? 14-1 Should Policy Be Active or Passive? Policymakers in the federal government view economic stabilization as one of their primary responsibilities.The analysis of macroeconomic policy is a regular duty of the Council of Economic Advisers, the Congressional Budget Office, the Federal Reserve, and other government agencies.When Congress or the presi- dent is considering a major change in fiscal policy, or when the Federal Reserve is considering a major change in monetary policy, foremost in the discussion are how the change will influence inflation and unemployment and whether aggre- gate demand needs to be stimulated or restrained. Although the government has long conducted monetary and fiscal policy, the view that it should use these policy instruments to try to stabilize the economy is more recent. The Employment Act of 1946 was a key piece of legislation in which the government first held itself accountable for macroeconomic perfor- mance.The act states that “it is the continuing policy and responsibility of the Federal Government to . . . promote full employment and production.’’This law was written when the memory of the Great Depression was still fresh.The law- makers who wrote it believed, as many economists do, that in the absence of an active government role in the economy, events such as the Great Depression could occur regularly. To many economists the case for active government policy is clear and simple. Recessions are periods of high unemployment, low incomes, and increased eco- nomic hardship.The model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply shows how shocks to the economy can cause recessions. It also shows how monetary and fis- cal policy can prevent recessions by responding to these shocks.These economists consider it wasteful not to use these policy instruments to stabilize the economy. Other economists are critical of the government’s attempts to stabilize the economy. These critics argue that the government should take a hands-off ap- proach to macroeconomic policy.At first, this view might seem surprising. If our model shows how to prevent or reduce the severity of recessions, why do these critics want the government to refrain from using monetary and fiscal policy for economic stabilization? To find out, let’s consider some of their arguments. Lags in the Implementation and Effects of Policies Economic stabilization would be easy if the effects of policy were immediate. Making policy would be like driving a car: policymakers would simply adjust their instruments to keep the economy on the desired path. CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 381 User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 382:27868#/eps at 100%*27868* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM Making economic policy, however, is less like driving a car than it is like pilot- ing a large ship. A car changes direction almost immediately after the steering wheel is turned. By contrast, a ship changes course long after the pilot adjusts the rudder, and once the ship starts to turn, it continues turning long after the rudder is set back to normal.A novice pilot is likely to oversteer and, after noticing the mistake, overreact by steering too much in the opposite direction.The ship’s path could become unstable, as the novice responds to previous mistakes by making larger and larger corrections. Like a ship’s pilot, economic policymakers face the problem of long lags. In- deed, the problem for policymakers is even more difficult, because the lengths of the lags are hard to predict.These long and variable lags greatly complicate the conduct of monetary and fiscal policy. Economists distinguish between two lags in the conduct of stabilization policy: the inside lag and the outside lag.The inside lag is the time between a shock to the economy and the policy action responding to that shock.This lag arises be- cause it takes time for policymakers first to recognize that a shock has occurred and then to put appropriate policies into effect.The outside lag is the time be- tween a policy action and its influence on the economy.This lag arises because policies do not immediately influence spending, income, and employment. A long inside lag is a central problem with using fiscal policy for economic stabilization.This is especially true in the United States, where changes in spend- ing or taxes require the approval of the president and both houses of Congress. The slow and cumbersome legislative process often leads to delays, which make fiscal policy an imprecise tool for stabilizing the economy. This inside lag is shorter in countries with parliamentary systems, such as the United Kingdom, because there the party in power can often enact policy changes more rapidly. Monetary policy has a much shorter inside lag than fiscal policy, because a central bank can decide on and implement a policy change in less than a day, but monetary policy has a substantial outside lag. Monetary policy works by chang- ing the money supply and thereby interest rates, which in turn influence invest- ment. But many firms make investment plans far in advance.Therefore, a change in monetary policy is thought not to affect economic activity until about six months after it is made. The long and variable lags associated with monetary and fiscal policy certainly make stabilizing the economy more difficult.Advocates of passive policy argue that, because of these lags, successful stabilization policy is almost impossible. Indeed, at- tempts to stabilize the economy can be destabilizing. Suppose that the economy’s condition changes between the beginning of a policy action and its impact on the economy. In this case, active policy may end up stimulating the economy when it is overheated or depressing the economy when it is cooling off. Advocates of active policy admit that such lags do require policymakers to be cautious. But, they argue, these lags do not necessarily mean that policy should be completely passive, espe- cially in the face of a severe and protracted economic downturn. Some policies, called automatic stabilizers, are designed to reduce the lags as- sociated with stabilization policy.Automatic stabilizers are policies that stimulate or depress the economy when necessary without any deliberate policy change. For 382 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 383:27869#/eps at 100%*27869* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM example,the system of income taxes automatically reduces taxes when the economy goes into a recession, without any change in the tax laws, because individuals and corporations pay less tax when their incomes fall. Similarly, the unemployment- insurance and welfare systems automatically raise transfer payments when the econ- omy moves into a recession, because more people apply for benefits. One can view these automatic stabilizers as a type of fiscal policy without any inside lag. The Difficult Job of Economic Forecasting Because policy influences the economy only after a long lag, successful stabilization policy requires the ability to predict accurately future economic conditions. If we cannot predict whether the economy will be in a boom or a recession in six months or a year, we cannot evaluate whether monetary and fiscal policy should now be try- ing to expand or contract aggregate demand. Unfortu- nately, economic developments are often unpredictable, at least given our current understanding of the economy. One way forecasters try to look ahead is with lead- ing indicators.A leading indicator is a data series that fluctuates in advance of the economy. A large fall in a leading indicator signals that a recession is more likely. Another way forecasters look ahead is with macro- econometric models, which have been developed both by government agencies and by private firms for forecast- ing and policy analysis. As we discussed in Chapter 11, CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 383 “It’s true, Caesar. Rome is declining, but I expect it to pick up in the next quarter.” Dr awing by Dana Fr adon; ? 1988 The New Y o r k er Magazine, Inc. FYI Each month the Conference Board, a private economics research group, announces the index of leading economic indicators. This index is made up from 10 data series that are often used to fore- cast changes in economic activity about six to nine months ahead. Here is a list of the series. Can you explain why each of these might help predict changes in real GDP? 1. Average workweek of production workers in manufacturing. 2. Average initial weekly claims for unemploy- ment insurance. This series is inverted in computing the index, so that a decrease in the series raises the index. What’s in the Index of Leading Economic Indicators? 3. New orders for consumer goods and materi- als, adjusted for inflation. 4. Vendor performance. This is a measure of the number of companies receiving slower deliveries from suppliers. 5. New orders, nondefense capital goods. 6. New building permits issued. 7. Index of stock prices. 8. Money supply (M2), adjusted for inflation. 9. Interest rate spread: the yield spread be- tween 10-year Treasury notes and 3-month Treasury bills. 10. Index of consumer expectations. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 384:27870#/eps at 100%*27870* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM these large-scale computer models are made up of many equations, each represent- ing a part of the economy.After making assumptions about the path of the exoge- nous variables, such as monetary policy, fiscal policy, and oil prices, these models yield predictions about unemployment, inflation, and other endogenous variables. Keep in mind, however, that the validity of these predictions is only as good as the model and the forecasters’ assumptions about the exogenous variables. 384 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates CASE STUDY Mistakes in Forecasting “Light showers, bright intervals, and moderate winds.”This was the forecast of- fered by the renowned British national weather service on October 14, 1987. The next day Britain was hit by the worst storm in more than two centuries. figure 14-1 Year Unemployment rate (percent) 1986 Actual 1983:4 1983:2 1982:4 1982:2 1981:4 1981:2 198519841983198219811980 11.0 10.5 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 Forecasting the Recession of 1982 The red line shows the actual unemployment rate from the first quarter of 1980 to the first quarter of 1986. The blue lines show the unemployment rate predicted at six points in time: the second quarter of 1981, the fourth quarter of 1981, the second quarter of 1982, and so on. For each forecast, the symbols mark the current unemployment rate and the forecast for the subsequent five quarters. Notice that the forecasters failed to predict both the rapid rise in the unemployment rate and the subsequent rapid decline. Source: The unemployment rate is from the Department of Commerce. The predicted unemployment rate is the median forecast of about 20 forecasters surveyed by the American Statistical Association and the National Bureau of Economic Research. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 385:27871#/eps at 100%*27871* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 385 Like weather forecasts, economic forecasts are a crucial input to private and public decisionmaking. Business executives rely on economic forecasts when de- ciding how much to produce and how much to invest in plant and equipment. Government policymakers also rely on them when developing economic poli- cies.Yet also like weather forecasts, economic forecasts are far from precise. The most severe economic downturn in U.S. history, the Great Depression of the 1930s, caught economic forecasters completely by surprise. Even after the stock market crash of 1929, they remained confident that the economy would not suffer a substantial setback. In late 1931, when the economy was clearly in bad shape, the eminent economist Irving Fisher predicted that it would recover quickly. Subsequent events showed that these forecasts were much too optimistic. 1 Figure 14-1 shows how economic forecasters did during the recession of 1982, the most severe economic downturn in the United States since the Great Depres- sion.This figure shows the actual unemployment rate (in red) and six attempts to predict it for the following five quarters (in blue).You can see that the forecasters did well predicting unemployment one quarter ahead.The more distant forecasts, how- ever, were often inaccurate. For example, in the second quarter of 1981, forecasters were predicting little change in the unemployment rate over the next five quarters; yet only two quarters later unemployment began to rise sharply.The rise in unem- ployment to almost 11 percent in the fourth quarter of 1982 caught the forecasters by surprise.After the depth of the recession became apparent, the forecasters failed to predict how rapid the subsequent decline in unemployment would be. These two episodes—the Great Depression and the recession of 1982—show that many of the most dramatic economic events are unpredictable. Although private and public decisionmakers have little choice but to rely on economic forecasts, they must always keep in mind that these forecasts come with a large margin of error. 1 Kathryn M. Dominguez, Ray C. Fair, and Matthew D. Shapiro, “Forecasting the Depression: Harvard Versus Yale,’’ American Economic Review 78 (September 1988): 595–612.This article shows how badly economic forecasters did during the Great Depression, and it argues that they could not have done any better with the modern forecasting techniques available today. Ignorance, Expectations, and the Lucas Critique The prominent economist Robert Lucas once wrote,“As an advice-giving pro- fession we are in way over our heads.’’ Even many of those who advise policy- makers would agree with this assessment. Economics is a young science, and there is still much that we do not know. Economists cannot be completely confi- dent when they assess the effects of alternative policies.This ignorance suggests that economists should be cautious when offering policy advice. Although economists’ knowledge is limited about many topics, Lucas has em- phasized the issue of how people form expectations of the future.Expectations play a crucial role in the economy because they influence all sorts of economic behav- ior. For instance, households decide how much to consume based on expectations User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 386:27872#/eps at 100%*27872* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:02 AM of future income, and firms decide how much to invest based on expectations of future profitability.These expectations depend on many things, including the eco- nomic policies being pursued by the government.Thus, when policymakers esti- mate the effect of any policy change, they need to know how people’s expectations will respond to the policy change. Lucas has argued that traditional methods of policy evaluation—such as those that rely on standard macroeconometric mod- els—do not adequately take into account this impact of policy on expectations. This criticism of traditional policy evaluation is known as the Lucas critique. 2 An important example of the Lucas critique arises in the analysis of disinfla- tion. As you may recall from Chapter 13, the cost of reducing inflation is often measured by the sacrifice ratio, which is the number of percentage points of GDP that must be forgone to reduce inflation by 1 percentage point. Because these estimates of the sacrifice ratio are often large, they have led some econo- mists to argue that policymakers should learn to live with inflation, rather than incur the large cost of reducing it. According to advocates of the rational-expectations approach, however, these es- timates of the sacrifice ratio are unreliable because they are subject to the Lucas cri- tique.Traditional estimates of the sacrifice ratio are based on adaptive expectations, that is, on the assumption that expected inflation depends on past inflation.Adaptive expectations may be a reasonable premise in some circumstances, but if the policy- makers make a credible change in policy, workers and firms setting wages and prices will rationally respond by adjusting their expectations of inflation appropriately.This change in inflation expectations will quickly alter the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.As a result, reducing inflation can potentially be much less costly than is suggested by traditional estimates of the sacrifice ratio. The Lucas critique leaves us with two lessons.The narrow lesson is that econo- mists evaluating alternative policies need to consider how policy affects expecta- tions and, thereby, behavior.The broad lesson is that policy evaluation is hard, so economists engaged in this task should be sure to show the requisite humility. The Historical Record In judging whether government policy should play an active or passive role in the economy, we must give some weight to the historical record. If the economy has experienced many large shocks to aggregate supply and aggregate demand, and if policy has successfully insulated the economy from these shocks, then the case for active policy should be clear. Conversely, if the economy has experienced few large shocks, and if the fluctuations we have observed can be traced to inept eco- nomic policy, then the case for passive policy should be clear. In other words, our view of stabilization policy should be influenced by whether policy has histori- cally been stabilizing or destabilizing. For this reason, the debate over macroeco- nomic policy frequently turns into a debate over macroeconomic history. Yet history does not settle the debate over stabilization policy. Disagree- ments over history arise because it is not easy to identify the sources of 386 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates 2 Robert E. Lucas, Jr.,“Econometric Policy Evaluation: A Critique,’’ Carnegie Rochester Conference on Public Policy 1 (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976), 19–46. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 387:27873#/eps at 100%*27873* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM economic fluctuations. The historical record often permits more than one interpretation. The Great Depression is a case in point. Economists’ views on macroeconomic policy are often related to their views on the cause of the Depression. Some econ- omists believe that a large contractionary shock to private spending caused the Depression.They assert that policymakers should have responded by stimulating aggregate demand. Other economists believe that the large fall in the money sup- ply caused the Depression. They assert that the Depression would have been avoided if the Fed had been pursuing a passive monetary policy of increasing the money supply at a steady rate. Hence, depending on one’s beliefs about its cause, the Great Depression can be viewed either as an example of why active monetary and fiscal policy is necessary or as an example of why it is dangerous. CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 387 CASE STUDY Is the Stabilization of the Economy a Figment of the Data? Keynes wrote The General Theory in the 1930s, and in the wake of the Keynesian revolution, governments around the world began to view economic stabilization as a primary responsibility. Some economists believe that the development of Keynesian theory has had a profound influence on the behavior of the economy. Comparing data from before World War I and after World War II, they find that real GDP and unemployment have become much more stable.This, some Keynes- ians claim, is the best argument for active stabilization policy: it has worked. In a series of provocative and influential papers, economist Christina Romer has challenged this assessment of the historical record. She argues that the mea- sured reduction in volatility reflects not an improvement in economic policy and performance but rather an improvement in the economic data. The older data are much less accurate than the newer data. Romer claims that the higher volatil- ity of unemployment and real GDP reported for the period before World War I is largely a figment of the data. Romer uses various techniques to make her case. One is to construct more accurate data for the earlier period.This task is difficult because data sources are not readily available. A second way is to construct less accurate data for the recent period—that is, data that are comparable to the older data and thus suffer from the same imperfections. After constructing new “bad’’ data, Romer finds that the recent period appears almost as volatile as the early period, suggesting that the volatility of the early period may be largely an artifact of data construction. Romer’s work is part of the continuing debate over whether macroeconomic policy has improved the performance of the economy. Although her work remains controversial, most economists now believe that the economy in the aftermath of the Keynesian revolution was only slightly more stable than it had been before. 3 3 Christina D. Romer, “Spurious Volatility in Historical Unemployment Data,’’ Journal of Political Economy 94 (February 1986): 1–37; and Christina D. Romer, “Is the Stabilization of the Postwar Economy a Figment of the Data?’’ American Economic Review 76 ( June 1986): 314–334. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 388:27874#/eps at 100%*27874* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM 388 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates CASE STUDY The Remarkable Stability of the 1990s Although economists who take a long historical view debate how much the economy has stabilized over time, there is less controversy about the more recent experience. Everyone agrees that the decade of the 1990s stands out as a period of remarkable stability for the U.S. economy. Table 14-1 presents some statistics about economic performance for the last five decades of the twentieth century.The three variables are those highlighted in Chapter 2: growth in real GDP, inflation, and unemployment. For each variable, the table presents the average over each decade and the standard deviation.The standard deviation measures the volatility of a variable: the higher the standard deviation, the more volatile the variable is. 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Real GDP Growth Average 4.18 4.43 3.28 3.02 3.03 Standard deviation 3.89 2.13 2.80 2.68 1.56 Inflation Average 2.07 2.33 7.09 5.66 3.00 Standard deviation 2.44 1.48 2.72 3.53 1.12 Unemployment Average 4.51 4.78 6.22 7.27 5.76 Standard deviation 1.29 1.07 1.16 1.48 1.05 Note: Real GDP growth is the growth rate of inflation-adjusted gross domestic product from four quarters earlier. Inflation is the rate of change in the consumer price index over the previous 12 months. Unemployment is the monthly, seasonally adjusted percentage of the labor force without a job. Source: Department of Commerce, Department of Labor, and author’s calculations. The U.S. Macroeconomic Experience, Decade by Decade table 14-1 One striking result from this table is the low volatility of the 1990s.The aver- ages for real growth, inflation, or unemployment are not unusual by historical standards, but the standard deviations of these variables are the smallest ever seen. Moreover, the changes are large. For instance, the standard deviation of inflation was 24 percent lower in the 1990s than it was in the 1960s—the second most stable decade. What accounts for the stability of the 1990s? Part of the answer is luck.The U.S. economy did not have to deal with any large, adverse supply shocks, such as the oil-price shocks of the 1970s. Part of the answer is also good policy. Many economists give credit to Alan Greenspan, who was chairman of the Federal User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 389:27875#/eps at 100%*27875* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM 14-2 Should Policy Be Conducted by Rule or by Discretion? A second topic of debate among economists is whether economic policy should be conducted by rule or by discretion. Policy is conducted by rule if policymak- ers announce in advance how policy will respond to various situations and com- mit themselves to following through on this announcement. Policy is conducted by discretion if policymakers are free to size up events as they occur and choose whatever policy seems appropriate at the time. The debate over rules versus discretion is distinct from the debate over passive versus active policy. Policy can be conducted by rule and yet be either passive or active. For example, a passive policy rule might specify steady growth in the money supply of 3 percent per year.An active policy rule might specify that Money Growth = 3% + (Unemployment Rate ? 6%). Under this rule, the money supply grows at 3 percent if the unemployment rate is 6 percent, but for every percentage point by which the unemployment rate ex- ceeds 6 percent, money growth increases by an extra percentage point.This rule tries to stabilize the economy by raising money growth when the economy is in a recession. We begin this section by discussing why policy might be improved by a com- mitment to a policy rule.We then examine several possible policy rules. Distrust of Policymakers and the Political Process Some economists believe that economic policy is too important to be left to the discretion of policymakers.Although this view is more political than economic, evaluating it is central to how we judge the role of economic policy. If politicians are incompetent or opportunistic, then we may not want to give them the dis- cretion to use the powerful tools of monetary and fiscal policy. Incompetence in economic policy arises for several reasons. Some economists view the political process as erratic, perhaps because it reflects the shifting power of special interest groups. In addition, macroeconomics is complicated, and politicians often do not have sufficient knowledge of it to make informed judg- ments.This ignorance allows charlatans to propose incorrect but superficially ap- pealing solutions to complex problems.The political process often cannot weed out the advice of charlatans from that of competent economists. Opportunism in economic policy arises when the objectives of policymakers conflict with the well-being of the public. Some economists fear that politicians CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 389 Reserve throughout the 1990s. His decisions about interest rates and the money supply kept the economy on track, avoiding both deep recession and runaway inflation. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 390:27876#/eps at 100%*27876* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM use macroeconomic policy to further their own electoral ends. If citizens vote on the basis of economic conditions prevailing at the time of the election, then politicians have an incentive to pursue policies that will make the economy look good during election years.A president might cause a recession soon after coming into office to lower inflation and then stimulate the economy as the next election approaches to lower unemployment; this would ensure that both inflation and unemployment are low on election day. Manipulation of the econ- omy for electoral gain, called the political business cycle, has been the subject of extensive research by economists and political scientists. 4 Distrust of the political process leads some economists to advocate placing economic policy outside the realm of politics. Some have proposed constitu- tional amendments, such as a balanced-budget amendment, that would tie the hands of legislators and insulate the economy from both incompetence and opportunism. 390 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates 4 William Nordhaus, “The Political Business Cycle,’’ Review of Economic Studies 42 (1975): 169–190; and Edward Tufte, Political Control of the Economy (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1978). CASE STUDY The Economy Under Republican and Democratic Presidents How does the political party in power affect the economy? Researchers working at the boundary between economics and political science have been studying this question. One intriguing finding is that the two political parties in the United States appear to conduct systematically different macroeconomic policies. Table 14-2 presents the growth in real GDP in each of the four years of the presidential terms since 1948. Notice that growth is usually low, and often nega- tive, in the second year of Republican administrations. Six of the eight years in which real GDP fell are second or third years of Republican administrations. By contrast, the economy is usually booming in the second and third years of Demo- cratic administrations. One interpretation of this finding is that the two parties have different prefer- ences regarding inflation and unemployment.That is, rather than viewing politi- cians as opportunistic, perhaps we should view them as merely partisan. Republicans seem to dislike inflation more than Democrats do.Therefore, Re- publicans pursue contractionary policies soon after coming into office and are willing to endure a recession to reduce inflation. Democrats pursue more expan- sionary policies to reduce unemployment and are willing to endure the higher inflation that results. Examining growth in the money supply shows that mone- tary policy is, in fact, less inflationary during Republican administrations.Thus, it seems that the two political parties pursue dramatically different policies and that the political process is one source of economic fluctuations. Even if we accept this interpretation of the evidence, it is not clear whether it argues for or against fixed policy rules. On the one hand, a policy rule would User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 391:27877#/eps at 100%*27877* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM The Time Inconsistency of Discretionary Policy If we assume that we can trust our policymakers, discretion at first glance ap- pears superior to a fixed policy rule. Discretionary policy is, by its nature, flex- ible. As long as policymakers are intelligent and benevolent, there might appear to be little reason to deny them flexibility in responding to changing conditions. Yet a case for rules over discretion arises from the problem of time inconsis- tency of policy. In some situations policymakers may want to announce in CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 391 insulate the economy from these political shocks. Under a fixed rule, the Fed would be unable to alter monetary policy in response to the changing political climate. The economy might be more stable, and long-run economic perfor- mance might be improved. On the other hand, a fixed policy rule would reduce the voice of the electorate in influencing macroeconomic policy. 5 YEAR OF TERM President First Second Third Fourth Democratic Administrations Truman ?0.6 8.9 7.6 3.7 Kennedy/Johnson 2.3 6.0 4.3 5.8 Johnson 6.4 6.6 2.5 4.8 Carter 4.6 5.5 3.2 ?0.2 Clinton I 2.7 4.0 2.7 3.6 Clinton II 4.4 4.4 4.2 5.0 Average 3.3 5.9 4.1 3.8 Republican Administrations Eisenhower I 4.6 ?0.7 7.1 2.0 Eisenhower II 2.0 ?1.0 7.2 2.5 Nixon 3.0 0.2 3.3 5.4 Nixon/Ford 5.8 ?0.6 ?0.4 5.6 Reagan I 2.5 ?2.0 4.3 7.3 Reagan II 3.8 3.4 3.4 4.2 Bush (elder) 3.5 1.8 ?0.5 3.0 Average 3.6 0.2 3.5 4.3 Source: Department of Commerce Real GDP Growth During Republican and Democratic Administrations table 14-2 5 Alberto Alesina,“Macroeconomics and Politics,’’ NBER Macroeconomics Annual 3 (1988): 13–52. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 392:27878#/eps at 100%*27878* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM advance the policy they will follow in order to influence the expectations of pri- vate decisionmakers. But later, after the private decisionmakers have acted on the basis of their expectations, these policymakers may be tempted to renege on their announcement. Understanding that policymakers may be inconsistent over time, private decisionmakers are led to distrust policy announcements. In this situa- tion, to make their announcements credible, policymakers may want to make a commitment to a fixed policy rule. Time inconsistency is illustrated most simply in a political rather than an economic example—specifically, public policy about negotiating with terror- ists over the release of hostages.The announced policy of many nations is that they will not negotiate over hostages. Such an announcement is intended to deter terrorists: if there is nothing to be gained from kidnapping hostages, ra- tional terrorists won’t kidnap any. In other words, the purpose of the an- nouncement is to influence the expectations of terrorists and thereby their behavior. But, in fact, unless the policymakers are credibly committed to the policy, the announcement has little effect.Terrorists know that once hostages are taken, pol- icymakers face an overwhelming temptation to make some concession to obtain the hostages’ release.The only way to deter rational terrorists is to take away the discretion of policymakers and commit them to a rule of never negotiating. If policymakers were truly unable to make concessions, the incentive for terrorists to take hostages would be largely eliminated. The same problem arises less dramatically in the conduct of monetary policy. Consider the dilemma of a Federal Reserve that cares about both inflation and unemployment. According to the Phillips curve, the tradeoff between inflation and unemployment depends on expected inflation.The Fed would prefer every- one to expect low inflation so that it will face a favorable tradeoff.To reduce ex- pected inflation, the Fed might announce that low inflation is the paramount goal of monetary policy. But an announcement of a policy of low inflation is by itself not credible. Once households and firms have formed their expectations of inflation and set wages and prices accordingly, the Fed has an incentive to renege on its an- nouncement and implement expansionary monetary policy to reduce unem- ployment. People understand the Fed’s incentive to renege and therefore do not believe the announcement in the first place. Just as a president facing a hostage crisis is sorely tempted to negotiate their release, a Federal Reserve with discre- tion is sorely tempted to inflate in order to reduce unemployment. And just as terrorists discount announced policies of never negotiating, households and firms discount announced policies of low inflation. The surprising outcome of this analysis is that policymakers can sometimes better achieve their goals by having their discretion taken away from them. In the case of rational terrorists, fewer hostages will be taken and killed if policymakers are committed to following the seemingly harsh rule of refusing to negotiate for hostages’ freedom. In the case of monetary policy, there will be lower inflation without higher unemployment if the Fed is committed to a policy of zero infla- tion. (This conclusion about monetary policy is modeled more explicitly in the appendix to this chapter.) 392 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 393:27879#/eps at 100%*27879* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM The time inconsistency of policy arises in many other contexts. Here are some examples: ? To encourage investment, the government announces that it will not tax income from capital. But after factories have been built, the govern- ment is tempted to renege on its promise to raise more tax revenue from them. ? To encourage research, the government announces that it will give a tem- porary monopoly to companies that discover new drugs. But after a drug has been discovered, the government is tempted to revoke the patent or to regulate the price to make the drug more affordable. ? To encourage good behavior, a parent announces that he or she will punish a child whenever the child breaks a rule. But after the child has misbehaved, the parent is tempted to forgive the transgression, because punishment is unpleasant for the parent as well as for the child. ? To encourage you to work hard, your professor announces that this course will end with an exam. But after you have studied and learned all the ma- terial, the professor is tempted to cancel the exam so that he or she won’t have to grade it. In each case, rational agents understand the incentive for the policymaker to re- nege, and this expectation affects their behavior.And in each case, the solution is to take away the policymaker’s discretion with a credible commitment to a fixed policy rule. CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 393 CASE STUDY Alexander Hamilton Versus Time Inconsistency Time inconsistency has long been a problem associated with discretionary pol- icy. In fact, it was one of the first problems that confronted Alexander Hamilton when President George Washington appointed him the first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury in 1789. Hamilton faced the question of how to deal with the debts that the new na- tion had accumulated as it fought for its independence from Britain.When the revolutionary government incurred the debts, it promised to honor them when the war was over. But after the war, many Americans advocated defaulting on the debt because repaying the creditors would require taxation, which is always costly and unpopular. Hamilton opposed the time-inconsistency policy of repudiating the debt. He knew that the nation would likely need to borrow again sometime in the future. In his First Report on the Public Credit, which he presented to Congress in 1790, he wrote If the maintenance of public credit, then, be truly so important, the next inquiry which suggests itself is: By what means is it to be effected? The ready answer to which question is, by good faith; by a punctual performance of contracts. States, User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 394:27880#/eps at 100%*27880* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM Rules for Monetary Policy Even if we are convinced that policy rules are superior to discretion, the debate over macroeconomic policy is not over. If the Fed were to commit to a rule for monetary policy, what rule should it choose? Let’s discuss briefly three policy rules that various economists advocate. Some economists, called monetarists, advocate that the Fed keep the money supply growing at a steady rate.The quotation at the beginning of this chapter from Milton Friedman—the most famous monetarist—exemplifies this view of mone- tary policy.Monetarists believe that fluctuations in the money supply are responsible for most large fluctuations in the economy.They argue that slow and steady growth in the money supply would yield stable output, employment, and prices. Although a monetarist policy rule might have prevented many of the eco- nomic fluctuations we have experienced historically, most economists believe that it is not the best possible policy rule. Steady growth in the money supply sta- bilizes aggregate demand only if the velocity of money is stable. But sometimes the economy experiences shocks, such as shifts in money demand, that cause ve- locity to be unstable. Most economists believe that a policy rule needs to allow the money supply to adjust to various shocks to the economy. A second policy rule that economists widely advocate is nominal GDP target- ing. Under this rule, the Fed announces a planned path for nominal GDP. If nominal GDP rises above the target, the Fed reduces money growth to dampen aggregate demand. If it falls below the target, the Fed raises money growth to stimulate aggregate demand. Because a nominal GDP target allows monetary policy to adjust to changes in the velocity of money, most economists believe it would lead to greater stability in output and prices than a monetarist policy rule. A third policy rule that is often advocated is inflation targeting. Under this rule, the Fed would announce a target for the inflation rate (usually a low one) and then adjust the money supply when the actual inflation deviates from the target. Like nominal GDP targeting, inflation targeting insulates the economy from changes in the velocity of money. In addition, an inflation target has the po- litical advantage that it is easy to explain to the public. Notice that all these rules are expressed in terms of some nominal variable— the money supply, nominal GDP, or the price level. One can also imagine policy rules expressed in terms of real variables. For example, the Fed might try to target the unemployment rate at 5 percent.The problem with such a rule is that no one 394 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates like individuals, who observe their engagements are respected and trusted, while the reverse is the fate of those who pursue an opposite conduct. Thus, Hamilton proposed that the nation make a commitment to the policy rule of honoring its debts. The policy rule that Hamilton originally proposed has continued for more than two centuries. Today, unlike in Hamilton’s time, when Congress debates spending priorities, no one seriously proposes defaulting on the public debt as a way to reduce taxes. In the case of public debt, everyone now agrees that the government should be committed to a fixed policy rule. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 395:27881#/eps at 100%*27881* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM knows exactly what the natural rate of unemployment is. If the Fed chose a tar- get for the unemployment rate below the natural rate, the result would be accel- erating inflation. Conversely, if the Fed chose a target for the unemployment rate above the natural rate, the result would be accelerating deflation. For this reason, economists rarely advocate rules for monetary policy expressed solely in terms of real variables, even though real variables such as unemployment and real GDP are the best measures of economic performance. CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 395 CASE STUDY Inflation Targeting: Rule or Constrained Discretion? Since the late 1980s, many of the world’s central banks—including those of Aus- tralia, Canada, Finland, Israel, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom—have adopted some form of an inflation target. Sometimes inflation targeting takes the form of a central bank announcing its policy intentions. Other times it takes the form of a national law that spells out the goals of mone- tary policy. For example, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act of 1989 told the central bank “to formulate and implement monetary policy directed to the eco- nomic objective of achieving and maintaining stability in the general level of prices.”The act conspicuously omitted any mention of any other competing ob- jective, such as stability in output, employment, interest rates, or exchange rates. Although the U.S. Federal Reserve has not adopted inflation targeting, some members of Congress have proposed bills that would require the Fed to do so. Should we interpret inflation targeting as a type of precommitment to a pol- icy rule? Not completely. In all the countries that have adopted inflation target- ing, central banks are left with a fair amount of discretion. Inflation targets are usually set as a range—an inflation rate of 1 to 3 percent, for instance—rather than a particular number.Thus, the central bank can choose where in the range it wants to be. In addition, the central banks are sometimes allowed to adjust their targets for inflation, at least temporarily, if some exogenous event (such as an eas- ily identified supply shock) pushes inflation outside of the range that was previ- ously announced. In light of this flexibility, what is the purpose of inflation targeting? Although inflation targeting does leave the central bank with some discretion, the policy does constrain how this discretion is used.When a central bank is told to “do the right thing,” it is hard to hold the central bank accountable, because people can argue forever about what the right thing is in any specific circumstance. By con- trast, when a central bank has announced an inflation target, the public can more easily judge whether the central bank is meeting that target.Thus, although infla- tion targeting does not tie the hands of the central bank, it does increase the transparency of monetary policy and, by doing so, makes central bankers more accountable for their actions. 6 6 See Ben S. Bernanke and Frederic S. Mishkin,“Inflation Targeting:A New Framework for Mon- etary Policy?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 11 (Spring 1997): 97–116. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 396:27882#/eps at 100%*27882* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM 396 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates CASE STUDY John Taylor’s (and Alan Greenspan’s?) Rule for Monetary Policy If you wanted to set interest rates to achieve stable prices while avoiding large fluctuations in output and employment, how would you do it? This is exactly the question that Alan Greenspan and the other governors of the Federal Reserve must ask themselves every day. The short-term policy instrument that the Fed now sets is the federal funds rate—the short-term interest rate at which banks make loans to one another. Whenever the Federal Open Market Committee meets, it chooses a target for the federal funds rate. The Fed’s bond traders are then told to conduct open-market operations in order to hit the desired target. The hard part of the Fed’s job is choosing the target for the federal funds rate. Two guidelines are clear. First, when inflation heats up, the federal funds rate should rise. An increase in the interest rate will mean a smaller money supply and, eventually, lower investment, lower output, higher unemployment, and re- duced inflation. Second, when real economic activity slows—as reflected in real GDP or unemployment—the federal funds rate should fall.A decrease in the in- terest rate will mean a larger money supply and, eventually, higher investment, higher output, and lower unemployment. The Fed needs to go beyond these general guidelines, however, and decide how much to respond to changes in inflation and real economic activity.To help it make this decision, economist John Taylor has proposed a simple rule for the federal funds rate: Nominal Federal Funds Rate = Inflation + 2.0 + 0.5 (Inflation ? 2.0) ? 0.5 (GDP Gap). The GDP gap is the percentage shortfall of real GDP from an estimate of its nat- ural rate. Taylor’s rule has the real federal funds rate—the nominal rate minus infla- tion—responding to inflation and the GDP gap. According to this rule, the real federal funds rate equals 2 percent when inflation is 2 percent and GDP is at its natural rate. For each percentage point by which inflation rises above 2 percent, the real federal funds rate rises by 0.5 percent. For each percentage point by which real GDP falls below its natural rate, the real federal funds rate falls by 0.5 percent. If GDP rises above its natural rate, so that the GDP gap is negative, the real federal funds rate rises accordingly. One way to view the Taylor rule is as a complement to (rather than a substi- tute for) inflation targeting.As the previous case study discussed, inflation target- ing offers a plan for the central bank in the medium run, but it does not constrain its month-to-month policy decisions.The Taylor rule may be a good short-run operating procedure for hitting a medium-run inflation target. Ac- cording to the Taylor rule, monetary policy responds directly to inflation—as any inflation-targeting central bank must. But it also responds to the output gap, which can be viewed as a measure of inflationary pressures. Taylor’s rule for monetary policy is not only simple and reasonable, but it also resembles actual Fed behavior in recent years. Figure 14-2 shows the actual fed- User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 397:27883#/eps at 100%*27883* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 397 eral funds rate and the target rate as determined by Taylor’s proposed rule. Notice how closely together the two series move. John Taylor’s monetary rule may be more than an academic suggestion. It may be the rule that Alan Greenspan and his colleagues subconsciously follow. 7 figure 14-2 Percent Year 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Taylor’s rule Actual 1989 199119881987 19931990 1992 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 The Federal Funds Rate: Actual and Suggested This figure shows the federal funds rate—the short-term interest rate at which banks make loans to each other. It also shows the federal funds rate suggested by John Taylor’s monetary rule. Notice that the two series move closely together. Source: Federal Reserve Board, U.S. Department of Commerce, and author’s calculations. To implement the Taylor rule, the inflation rate is measured as the percentage change in the GDP deflator over the previous four quarters, and the GDP gap is measured as twice the deviation of the unemployment rate from 6 percent. 7 John B. Taylor, “The Inflation/Output Variability Tradeoff Revisited,” in Goals, Guidelines, and Constraints Facing Monetary Policymakers (Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, 1994). CASE STUDY Central-Bank Independence Suppose you were put in charge of writing the constitution and laws for a country. Would you give the president of the country authority over the policies of the central bank? Or would you allow the central bank to make decisions free from such political influence? In other words, assuming that monetary policy is made by discretion rather than by rule, who should exercise that discretion? Countries vary greatly in how they choose to answer this question. In some countries, the central bank is a branch of the government; in others, the central User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 398:27884#/eps at 100%*27884* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM 398 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates bank is largely independent. In the United States, Fed governors are appointed by the president for 14-year terms, and they cannot be recalled if the president is unhappy with their decisions.This institutional structure gives the Fed a degree of independence similar to that of the Supreme Court. Many researchers have investigated the effects of constitutional design on monetary policy.They have examined the laws of different countries to construct an index of central-bank independence.This index is based on various character- istics, such as the length of bankers’ terms, the role of government officials on the bank board, and the frequency of contact between the government and the cen- tral bank.The researchers then examined the correlation between central-bank independence and macroeconomic performance. The results of these studies are striking: more independent central banks are strongly associated with lower and more stable inflation. Figure 14-3 shows a scatterplot of central-bank independence and average inflation for the period 1955 to 1988. Countries that had an independent central bank, such as Germany, Switzerland, and the United States, tended to have low average inflation. Coun- tries that had central banks with less independence, such as New Zealand and Spain, tended to have higher average inflation. Researchers have also found there is no relationship between central-bank independence and real economic activity. In particular, central-bank indepen- dence is not correlated with average unemployment, the volatility of unem- figure 14-3 Index of central-bank independence Average inflation 4.543.532.521.510.5 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Spain New Zealand Italy United Kingdom Denmark Australia France/Norway/Sweden Japan Canada Netherlands Belgium United States Switzerland Germany Inflation and Central-Bank Independence This scatterplot presents the international experience with central-bank independence. The evidence shows that more- independent central banks tend to produce lower rates of inflation. Source: Figure 1a, page 155, of Alberto Alesina and Lawrence H. Summers, “Central Bank Independence and Macroeconomic Performance: Some Comparative Evidence,” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 25 (May 1993): 151–162. Average inflation is for the period 1955–1988. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 399:27885#/eps at 100%*27885* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM 14-3 Conclusion: Making Policy in an Uncertain World In this chapter we have examined whether policy should take an active or passive role in responding to economic fluctuations and whether policy should be con- ducted by rule or by discretion.There are many arguments on both sides of these questions. Perhaps the only clear conclusion is that there is no simple and com- pelling case for any particular view of macroeconomic policy. In the end, you must weigh the various arguments, both economic and political, and decide for yourself what kind of role the government should play in trying to stabilize the economy. For better or worse, economists play a key role in the formulation of eco- nomic policy. Because the economy is complex, this role is often difficult.Yet it is also inevitable. Economists cannot sit back and wait until our knowledge of the economy has been perfected before giving advice. In the meantime, someone must advise economic policymakers.That job, difficult as it sometimes is, falls to economists. The role of economists in the policymaking process goes beyond giving ad- vice to policymakers. Even economists cloistered in academia influence policy indirectly through their research and writing. In the conclusion of The General Theory, John Maynard Keynes wrote that the ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, are more powerful than is commonly understood. Indeed, the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from intellectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct econo- mist. Madmen in authority, who hear voices in the air, are distilling their frenzy from some academic scribbler of a few years back. This is as true today as it was when Keynes wrote it in 1936—except now that academic scribbler is often Keynes himself. CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 399 ployment, the average growth of real GDP, or the volatility of real GDP. Central-bank independence appears to offer countries a free lunch: it has the benefit of lower inflation without any apparent cost.This finding has led some countries, such as New Zealand, to rewrite their laws to give their central banks greater independence. 8 8 For a more complete presentation of these findings and references to the large literature on central-bank independence, see Alberto Alesina and Lawrence H. Summers,“Central Bank Inde- pendence and Macroeconomic Performance: Some Comparative Evidence,” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 25 (May 1993): 151–162. For a study that questions the link between inflation and central-bank independence, see Marta Campillo and Jeffrey A. Miron, “Why Does Inflation Differ Across Countries?” in Christina D. Romer and David H. Romer, eds., Reducing Inflation: Mo- tivation and Strategy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 335–362. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 400:27886#/eps at 100%*27886* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM Summary 1. Advocates of active policy view the economy as subject to frequent shocks that will lead to unnecessary fluctuations in output and employment unless monetary or fiscal policy responds. Many believe that economic policy has been successful in stabilizing the economy. 2. Advocates of passive policy argue that because monetary and fiscal policies work with long and variable lags, attempts to stabilize the economy are likely to end up being destabilizing. In addition, they believe that our present un- derstanding of the economy is too limited to be useful in formulating suc- cessful stabilization policy and that inept policy is a frequent source of economic fluctuations. 3. Advocates of discretionary policy argue that discretion gives more flexibility to policymakers in responding to various unforeseen situations. 4. Advocates of policy rules argue that the political process cannot be trusted. They believe that politicians make frequent mistakes in conducting economic policy and sometimes use economic policy for their own political ends. In addition, advocates of policy rules argue that a commitment to a fixed policy rule is necessary to solve the problem of time inconsistency. 400 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates 1. What are the inside lag and the outside lag? Which has the longer inside lag—monetary or fiscal policy? Which has the longer outside lag? Why? 2. Why would more accurate economic fore- casting make it easier for policymakers to stabi- lize the economy? Describe two ways econo- mists try to forecast developments in the economy. 3. Describe the Lucas critique. KEY CONCEPTS Inside and outside lags Automatic stabilizers Leading indicators QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW Lucas critique Political business cycle Time inconsistency Monetarists 4. How does a person’s interpretation of macroeco- nomic history affect his view of macroeconomic policy? 5. What is meant by the “time inconsistency’’ of economic policy? Why might policymakers be tempted to renege on an announcement they made earlier? In this situation, what is the advan- tage of a policy rule? 6. List three policy rules that the Fed might follow. Which of these would you advocate? Why? User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 401:27887#/eps at 100%*27887* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 401 PROBLEMS AND APPLICATIONS 1. Suppose that the tradeoff between unemployment and inflation is determined by the Phillips curve: u = u n - a ( p ? p e ), where u denotes the unemployment rate, u n the natural rate, p the rate of inflation, and p e the ex- pected rate of inflation. In addition, suppose that the Democratic party always follows a policy of high money growth and the Republican party al- ways follows a policy of low money growth.What “political business cycle’’ pattern of inflation and unemployment would you predict under the fol- lowing conditions? a. Every four years, one of the parties takes control based on a random flip of a coin. (Hint: What will expected inflation be prior to the election?) b. The two parties take turns. 2. When cities pass laws limiting the rent landlords can charge on apartments, the laws usually apply to existing buildings and exempt any buildings not yet built.Advocates of rent control argue that this exemption ensures that rent control does not discourage the construction of new housing. Evaluate this argument in light of the time- inconsistency problem. 3. Go to the Web site of the Federal Reserve (www.federalreserve.gov). Find and read a press release, congressional testimony, or a report about recent monetary policy.What does it say? What is the Fed doing? Why? What do you think about the Fed’s recent policy decisions? User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 402:27888#/eps at 100%*27888* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM 402 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates In this appendix, we examine more analytically the time-inconsistency argument for rules rather than discretion.This material is relegated to an appendix because we will need to use some calculus. 9 Suppose that the Phillips curve describes the relationship between inflation and unemployment. Letting u denote the unemployment rate, u n the natural rate of unemployment, p the rate of inflation, and p e the expected rate of inflation, unemployment is determined by u = u n ? a ( p ? p e ). Unemployment is low when inflation exceeds expected inflation and high when inflation falls below expected inflation.The parameter a determines how much unemployment responds to surprise inflation. For simplicity, suppose also that the Fed chooses the rate of inflation. Of course, more realistically, the Fed controls inflation only imperfectly through its control of the money supply. But for purposes of illustration, it is useful to as- sume that the Fed can control inflation perfectly. The Fed likes low unemployment and low inflation. Suppose that the cost of unemployment and inflation, as perceived by the Fed, can be represented as L(u, p ) = u + gp 2 , where the parameter g represents how much the Fed dislikes inflation relative to unemployment. L(u, p ) is called the loss function.The Fed’s objective is to make the loss as small as possible. Having specified how the economy works and the Fed’s objective, let’s com- pare monetary policy made under a fixed rule and under discretion. First, consider policy under a fixed rule.A rule commits the Fed to a particular level of inflation.As long as private agents understand that the Fed is committed to this rule, the expected level of inflation will be the level the Fed is committed to produce. Because expected inflation equals actual inflation ( p e = p ), unemploy- ment will be at its natural rate (u = u n ). What is the optimal rule? Because unemployment is at its natural rate regard- less of the level of inflation legislated by the rule, there is no benefit to having any inflation at all.Therefore, the optimal fixed rule requires that the Fed pro- duce zero inflation. Time Inconsistency and the Tradeoff Between Inflation and Unemployment APPENDIX 9 The material in this appendix is derived from Finn E. Kydland and Edward C. Prescott,“Rules Rather Than Discretion:The Inconsistency of Optimal Plans,’’ Journal of Political Economy 85 ( June 1977): 473–492; and Robert J. Barro and David Gordon,“A Positive Theory of Monetary Policy in a Natural Rate Model,’’ Journal of Political Economy 91 (August 1983): 589–610. User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 403:27889#/eps at 100%*27889* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM Second, consider discretionary monetary policy. Under discretion, the econ- omy works as follows: 1. Private agents form their expectations of inflation p e . 2. The Fed chooses the actual level of inflation p . 3. Based on expected and actual inflation, unemployment is determined. Under this arrangement, the Fed minimizes its loss L(u, p ) subject to the con- straint that the Phillips curve imposes.When making its decision about the rate of inflation, the Fed takes expected inflation as already determined. To find what outcome we would obtain under discretionary policy, we must examine what level of inflation the Fed would choose. By substituting the Phillips curve into the Fed’s loss function, we obtain L(u, p ) = u n ? a ( p ? p e ) + gp 2 . Notice that the Fed’s loss is negatively related to unexpected inflation (the sec- ond term in the equation) and positively related to actual inflation (the third term).To find the level of inflation that minimizes this loss, differentiate with re- spect to p to obtain dL/d p =? a + 2 gp . The loss is minimized when this derivative equals zero. Solving for p , we get p = a /(2 g ). Whatever level of inflation private agents expected, this is the “optimal’’ level of inflation for the Fed to choose. Of course, rational private agents understand the objective of the Fed and the constraint that the Phillips curve imposes. They therefore expect that the Fed will choose this level of inflation. Expected infla- tion equals actual inflation [ p e = p = a /(2 g )], and unemployment equals its nat- ural rate (u = u n ). Now compare the outcome under optimal discretion to the outcome under the optimal rule. In both cases, unemployment is at its natural rate.Yet discre- tionary policy produces more inflation than does policy under the rule. Thus, op- timal discretion is worse than the optimal rule.This is true even though the Fed under discretion was attempting to minimize its loss, L(u, p ). At first it may seem strange that the Fed can achieve a better outcome by being committed to a fixed rule.Why can’t the Fed with discretion mimic the Fed committed to a zero-inflation rule? The answer is that the Fed is playing a game against private decisionmakers who have rational expectations. Unless it is committed to a fixed rule of zero inflation, the Fed cannot get private agents to expect zero inflation. Suppose, for example, that the Fed simply announces that it will follow a zero- inflation policy. Such an announcement by itself cannot be credible.After private agents have formed their expectations of inflation, the Fed has the incentive to renege on its announcement in order to decrease unemployment. (As we have CHAPTER 14 Stabilization Policy | 403 User JOEWA:Job EFF01430:6264_ch14:Pg 404:27890#/eps at 100%*27890* Mon, Feb 18, 2002 1:03 AM just seen, once expectations are given, the Fed’s optimal policy is to set inflation at p = a /(2 g ), regardless of p e .) Private agents understand the incentive to renege and therefore do not believe the announcement in the first place. This theory of monetary policy has an important corollary. Under one cir- cumstance, the Fed with discretion achieves the same outcome as the Fed com- mitted to a fixed rule of zero inflation. If the Fed dislikes inflation much more than it dislikes unemployment (so that g is very large), inflation under discretion is near zero, because the Fed has little incentive to inflate.This finding provides some guidance to those who have the job of appointing central bankers.An al- ternative to imposing a fixed rule is to appoint an individual with a fervent dis- taste for inflation. Perhaps this is why even liberal politicians ( Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton) who are more concerned about unemployment than inflation some- times appoint conservative central bankers (Paul Volcker, Alan Greenspan) who are more concerned about inflation. 404 | PART V Macroeconomic Policy Debates 1. In the 1970s in the United States, the inflation rate and the natural rate of unemployment both rose. Let’s use this model of time inconsistency to examine this phenomenon.Assume that policy is discretionary. a. In the model as developed so far, what happens to the inflation rate when the natural rate of unemployment rises? b. Let’s now change the model slightly by sup- posing that the Fed’s loss function is quadratic in both inflation and unemployment.That is, MORE PROBLEMS AND APPLICATIONS L(u, p ) = u 2 + gp 2 . Follow steps similar to those in the text to solve for the inflation rate under discretionary policy. c. Now what happens to the inflation rate when the natural rate of unemployment rises? d. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter appointed the conservative central banker Paul Volcker to head the Federal Reserve. According to this model, what should have happened to inflation and unemployment?