Chapter 6.Motivation
§ 6.1行为科学的基本概念 ---
需要、动机与行为一、需要与行为
人类有意识活动,个体生物本能 ;社会环境决定。 Lewin人类行为公式,B=f( P·E)
need:客观刺激作用于人的大脑所引起的个体缺乏某种东西的状态 (外部,内部 ;物质,精神 )
internal state making certain outcomes attractive
motive:引起个人行为、维持该行为并将此行为导向满足某种需要的欲望、愿望、
信念等心理因素叫动机
转变:需要强度;对象(目标)确定一、需要与行为
Process:unsatisfied need---tension---drives---
search behavior---satisfied need----reduction of
tension
动机结构,强度,优势动机 (主导 ),辅助动机。
行为受优势支配的
确立 --实现目标的过程,目标导向行为 (寻求、到达目标的过程 ),目标行为 (直接满足需要的行为 ),动机强度变化二、动机和行为的对应关系
B=f( P·E)复杂
同一动机可以引起多种不同的行为
同一行为可出自不同的动机
一种行为可能为多种动机所推动
合理的动机可能引起有不合理的甚至错误的行为
错误动机有时被外表积极的行为所掩盖三、挫折行为
挫折,满足需要的动机受到阻碍的现象
动机受挫,解决问题行为;挫折行为
挫折行为,攻击(直接,间接),合理化,退化(原始的幼稚的行为),固执
(拒绝劝告,事实),屈服
处理挫折行为,谅解、宽容、劝慰,缓和,分析原因(主,客观),客观阻碍,
引导其走向解决问题行为,教育、批评
4.Motivation
the willingness to exert high levels of effort
toward organizational goals,conditioned by the
effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need
积极性,激发进取心理动力 。 自觉主动的心理状态 ----意识活跃水平,情绪振奋程度和意志力强度等方面,行为效率 。
激励赖以运转的一切办法、手段、环节等制度安排的总称
Chapter 6,Motivation
§ 5.2 Early theory of Motivation
The 1950s were a fruitful period in the
development of motivation concepts.3 specific
theories were formulated during this time
1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow
There is a hierarchy of 5 needs---physiological,
safety,social,esteem,& self-actualization---and as
each need is sequentially satisfied,the next need
becomes dominant
Separation:Lower order needs---needs that are
satisfied externally; physiological & safety needs
review:1.intuitively logical,ease of understanding,
receiving wide recognition,particularly among practicing
managers,2.little empirical support
美国工人主导需要变化估计
主导需要种类 1935年 1995年
生理需要 35 5
安全需要 45 15
社交需要 10 24
自尊需要 7 30
自我实现需要 3 26
中国古代的需要层次思想
,论语 ·里仁,,富与贵,是人之所欲也”
告子“食色,性也”,孟子 ·告子上,
管子“仓廪实知礼节,衣食足而知荣辱”
,列子 ·杨朱,,生民之不得休息,为四事故,一为寿,二为名,三为位,四为货”
王夫子:“盖凡声色、货利、权势、事功之所欲者,皆谓之欲”
解决需要的合理途径
实际中的不同类型:事业,社交,生活
总需要 ---不正当(引导教育),正当 ---
不合理(说服放弃),合理 ---现在不能解决(说明),现在能解决 ---自力更生不能解决(措施),自力更生能解决 --支持鼓励
2.人性的假设
X理论 (McGregor,D),多数人都是懒惰的;
没有雄心壮志;个人目标与组织目标相矛盾的;
缺乏理智,不能克制自己;为满足基本生理安全需要。做经济上获利最大的事。
管理职责和方式,职权命令,使对方服从;严密组织和具体规范;金钱报酬。
社会人假设,交往 --主要动机;专业分工和机械化使劳动失去内在含义,从工作社会意义寻求安慰;人际关系比管理措施和奖励影响大管理,满足归属,交往和友谊需要,
2.人性的假设
自我实现人假设,工作是满足,也可能是处罚,
环境而定;愿意自我管理来完成目标;人的自我实现要求和组织无矛盾;普通人也谋求职责;
多数人都能发挥想象力,聪明才智和创造性;
普通人的智能潜力只得到部分发挥。
管理措施,改变管理职能重点;激励;自主权
复杂人假设,需要随不同阶段、条件和环境而变;同一时间有多种,产生新的需要和动机。
不同组织形成不同的动机。 没有普适管理方式。
中国古代的人性思想
孔子,论语 ·阳货,,性相近,习相远也”
世硕“人性有善有恶,举人之善性,养而致之则善长;性恶,--”,性善恶混论”
告不害“性无善恶论”,“性犹湍水也,
决诸东方则东流,--人性之无分于善不善也,犹水之无分于东西也”人为制造
孟子论证“性善论”
荀子“人之性恶,其善者伪也”
3,Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Frederick Herzberg,individual’s relation to his work
Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction,
while extrinsic factors are associated with
dissatisfaction
satisfaction,No satisfaction
Hygiene factors:those factors---such as company policy
& administration,supervision,& salary---that,when
adequate in job,placate workers.When these factors are
adequate,people will not be dissatisfied
Chapter 6.Motivation
Contemporary theory of
Motivation
having one thing in common:each has a
reasonable degree of valid supporting
documentation
1.ERG theory Clayton Alderfer of Yale
reworked Maslow’s theory to align it more closely with the
empirical research
There are 3 groups of core needs:existence,
relatedness,& growth
Difference:(1)more than 1 need may be operative at the
same time,(2)if the gratification of a higher level needs is
stifled,the desire to satisfy a lower level need increases
Maslow,a rigid steplike progression,ERG:contains a
frustration-regression dimension
Several studies have supported the ERG theory:natives of
Spain & Japan place social needs before their
physiological requirements
2.McClelland’s theory of needs
Achievement,power,affiliation are 3 important
needs that help to understand Motivition
Achievement need:The drive to excel,to achieve in
relation to a set of standards,to strive to succeed
nPow:the desire to make others behave in a way
that they would not otherwise have behaved in
nAff,the desire for friendly & closely
interpersonal relationships
高成就者,把事情做得更好 。 判断 --测量无意识动机的投射测验; 训练 员工激发其成就需要
2.McClelland’s theory of needs
高成就者,有个人责任、获得工作反馈和适度冒险性 (成功可能 0.5)的环境,激励水平高。 创造性活动 更易成功 --经营自己的公司;
销售,管理大组织中一个独立部门。不一定是一个优秀的管理者。
高权力需要者,责任,影响他人,处于竞争性和重视地位。 与绩效相比,更关心威望和影响力。 管理有效性 的一个必要条件,与管理者的成功有密切关系
最优管理者:高权力需要,低合群需要
3,Expectancy theory
Victor Vroom
help to explain why workers aren’t motivated on
their jobs & merely do the minimum necessary to
get by
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the
act will be followed by a given outcome & on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
激励力 =效价? 期望值 个人受激励程度,
对预期成果(效用)估价,达到预期目标概率
3,Expectancy theory
三个环节的认知主观判断
Effort---performance relationship,skill,appraisal
system;
subjective performance---reward relationship,
incentive scheme,stable
reward----personal goal relationship
根据员工能力合理指派工作,确定目标 ;设计合适工作环境和报酬制度 ;使员工对预期组织目标和个人目标的实现充满信心。
4.Equity theory
J,Stacy Adams
Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes
with those of others & then respond so as to
eliminate any inequities
主观评价和相互比较的方法来进行考察个人对自己所得感觉 /对自己投入的感觉 ==个人对他人所得感觉 / 个人对他人投入的感觉
4 referent comparisons,Self-inside--one’s
experience in a different position inside his current
organization; Self-outside; Other-inside; Self-
outside
4.Equity theory
4 propositions relating to inequitable pay,
Given payment by time,the overrewarded produce
more than equitably paid employees;
the underrewarded produce less or poorer quality
of output than
Given payment by quantity of production,the
overrewarded produce fewer,but higher
quality,units than equitably paid employees;
the underrewarded produce a large number of low-
quality units than,
个人往往过高估计自己投入与他人所得,过低估计自己所得与他人的投入
4.Equity theory
Minor qualifications:1.people have a great deal
more tolerance of overpayment inequities than of
underpayment inequities,2.not all people are
equity sensitive,such as benevolent types
Distributive justice:perceived fairness of the
amount & allocation of rewards among individuals,
satisfaction
Procedural justice:perceived fairness of the
process used to determine the distribution of
rewards,commitment
5.Reinforcement theory
B.F.Skinner
Moderator,goal commitment,adequate self-
efficacy,national culture
reinforcement theory,behavior is a function of
it’s consequences,人的行为是对其所获刺激的一种反应。如果刺激对他有利,他的行为就有可能重复出现;若刺激对他不利,则他的行为就可能减弱,甚至消失。 Strictly speaking,it’s not a theory of
motivation
5.Reinforcement theory
正强化,奖励符合组织目标的行为,使其进一步加强,重复地出现 ----经济,非经济的。连续,
固定性费时费力,效力递减。不定期(间断性)、不定量强化。
惩罚,出现不符合组织目标行为时,迫使其少发生或不再发生。连续性,间隔性惩罚:间隔一段固定或不固定的时间间隙(次数)
负强化 。规定不符合组织要求的行为并说明惩罚细则,使成员行为趋向于符合要求规范状态。
非正面的对所希望行为的强化 。
5.Reinforcement theory
忽视 (自然消退):对出现的不符合要求行为
“冷处理”,“无为而治” 。
影响和改变员工行为的重点:积极强化而不简单的惩罚;惩罚较快效果,作用暂时,心理副作用 。 负强化,
忽视对员工行为的影响作用也不应该轻视 。 应该配合起来使用 。
6.Ability & opportunity
success on a job is constrained by support
resources
Opportunity to perform:high value of
performance are partially a function of an
absences that constrain the employee
=f(A,M,O)
Integration--- Expectancy theory
Culture bound-- Motivation
§ 6.4 关于激励员工的建议
认清 个体差异 。期望理论对内控型人比外控型人预测得更准确
使人与职务相匹配
运用目标
个别化奖励
奖励与绩效挂钩
检查公平性系统
§ 6.4 关于激励员工的建议
不要忽视视线的因素。
80项激励方式对员工生产率影响的研究,其结论:当仅根据生产情况来设定目标时,生产率平均提高了 16%;重新设计激励机制以使工作更为丰富化,生产率水平提高了 8%~ 16%;让员工参与决策的做法,使生产率水平提高了不到 1%;然而,以金钱作为刺激物却使生产率水平提高了 30%。