第二章 证券投资风险和收益
回报和风险的定义
投资者制定投资目标应考虑回报和风险
投资者厌恶风险,承担风险需要补偿
不同的投资者对风险厌恶程度不一样,怎样刻画不同投资者对收益 -风险之间的权衡关系
市场给出收益 -风险之间的公平关系 -市场定价
1,回报率的定义
回报率是对证券表现的一种度量。
总回报率 (持有期收益率 HPR(holding period
return))
假设红利在持有期末支付
t
tt
t P
PdR 11
1
Example,buy share at $50,at end of
year it is worth $55 and pays $2
dividend
Gross Return=
14.150 552
净回报率
净回报率 =收入收益 +资本利得
1111
t
tt
t P
Pdr
t
tt
t
t
P
PP
P
d 11
HPR provides a useful device for
simplifying the complex reality of
investment analysis,Although no
panacea,it allows an analyst to focus
on the most relevant horizon in a given
situation and offers a good measure of
performance over such a period.
多期回报率和复利
例子:一种股票现价为 46元,假设一年后价格为 50元,两年后价格为 56元;在第一年中红利为 1.5元,第二年中红利为 2元,假设每次分红都在年末进行,求这种股票在这两年中的持有期收益率 HPR,以及以复利计算时的每年持有期收益率 HPR。
假设红利支付后马上投资几何平均与算术平均
2,证券投资的风险
风险是指未来的不确定性
没有风险就没有股市
2001年下半年以来的中国股市
2001年 9.11
1987年 10月 19日,被称为“黑色星期一”
DJIA 下跌了 22.6%(508点)
近八年中国股市
NIKKI 225 Index
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
Jan-85 Jan-86 Jan-87 Jan-88 Jan-89 Jan-90 Jan-91 Jan-92 Jan-93 Jan-94 Jan-95 Jan-96 Jan-97 Jan-98 Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01 Jan-02
NASDAQ指数曾高达 5100多点,2002/10/2不到 1200!
微软为绩优股,但股价已较 2000年高位下跌约六成!
LUCENT 2002/10/2股价仅 $0.75,不及 1999年高位的 1%!!
证券投资的风险
例子:下一年你有 5000块钱用于投资,
投资一年,有六种投资机会供选择:
( 1) 30天到期、现在年收益率为 6%的货币市场基金
( 2)一年定期存款,利率为 7.5%
( 3) 10年期长期国债,每年收益为 9%
( 4)一种股票,现价 10元 /股,下一年的预期股价为 11.2元 /股,且估计红利为 0.2元
( 5)一人向你借钱,期限一年,利率 15%
(6)以 8.4元人民币兑 1美元买外汇证券投资的收益和风险
问题
你投资在哪种证券
有哪些风险
如何度量风险
如果该股票下一年的预期价格为 10元,你是否会投资该股票
投资者如何决策证券投资风险
风险的来源
经营风险 (Business risk)
财务风险 (Financial risk)
流动风险 (Liquidity risk)
违约风险 (Default risk)
利率风险
通货膨胀风险
国家经济状况
系统风险与非系统风险收益和风险的例子
一支股票,现价 100元 /股,预期在接下来的一年中的红利为 4元,一年后的价格预期为下表所示,无风险利率为 6%
state of the economy probability ending price HPR
boom 0.25 140元 44%
normal growth 0.50 110元 14%
recession 0.25 80元 -16%
3,对风险证券收益的度量
期望回报率 (expected return)
样本均值
The record of past rates of return is one possible
source of information about expected return,
因为我们无法知道将来,所以用样本均值来估计期望回报率,
实现回报率 (realized return)
风险酬金 (risk premium)与超额回报率 (excess
return)
例子:风险酬金 (risk premium)与超额回报率 (excess return)
一支股票,现价 100元 /股,预期在接下来的一年中的红利为 4元,一年后的价格预期为下表所示,无风险利率为 6%
state of the economy probability ending price HPR
boom 0.25 140元 44%
normal growth 0.50 110元 14%
recession 0.25 80元 -16%
4,对风险证券风险的度量
方差、标准差
样本方差
The record of past rates of return is one
possible source of information about
variance.
因为我们无法知道将来,所以用样本方差来估计方差,
We should stress that variability of HPR in
the past can be an unreliable guide to risk,
at least in the case of the risk-free asset.
For risk-free asset,the variance is zero,but
the sample variance is not zero,This
reflects variation over time in expected
returns rather than fluctuations of actual
returns around prior expectations,
最大、最小值之差
频率分布
作业:计算我国股市的回报率和风险
目的:使得我们对各种可能投资的表现有一个合理的预期。
要求:
把股票分成大、中、小三个板快分别计算回报率和风险
按照样本均值、最大和最小值、分布频率分别计算回报率
VaR (Value at Risk)
the expected maximum loss (or worst loss)
over a target horizon within a given
confidence interval
1))()()0(( Va rTWWP
例子
HPR的方差
HPR的标准差
Annual rates of return,1926-1999
Sm a ll
stocks
Lar g e
stocks
Long -
te r m
b o n d s
In te rm
ediat e-
te r m
b o n d s
T-b il ls inflat i
on
Me an 1 8,81 1 3,1 1 5,3 6 5,1 9 3,8 2 3,1 7
St.
Dev
3 9,69 2 0,21 8,1 2 6,3 8 3,2 9 4,4 6
The trade-off between risk and
return
一般来说,高收益伴随着高风险
The equity premium for the market of
U.S,from 1926-2002 is 5.9%
W = 100
W1 = 150 Profit = 50
W2 = 80 Profit = -201-p =,4
E(W) = pW1 + (1-p)W2 = 6 (150) +,4(80) = 122
s2 = p[W1 - E(W)]2 + (1-p) [W2 - E(W)]2 =
.6 (150-122)2 +,4(80=122)2 = 1,176,000
s? 34.293
Example,Risk - Uncertain Outcomes
W1 = 150 Profit = 50
W2 = 80 Profit = -201-p =,4100
Risky Inv.
Risk Free T-bills Profit = 5
Risk Premium = 17
Example,Risky Investments
with Risk-Free Investment
The question of whether a given risk
premium provides adequate compensation for
the investment’s risk is age-old.
One of central concerns of finance theory is
the measurement of risk and the
determination of the risk premiums that
investors can expect of risky assets in well-
function capital markets.
5,投资者的选择方式
投资者的效用函数
例子
最大化效用函数
)e x p()( TT WWU
5.1 风险厌恶
例子,a lottery where you will either receive
$50,000 if a coin lands heads and lose
$20,000 if it lands tails
compare this with getting $15,000 for sure
most people would prefer the sure $15,000,both
choices offer an expected reward of $15,000 but
one of them also has risk,which we dislike
if the sure thing reward was only $10,000,you
might choose the lottery instead
2121 )1()1( XUXUXXU
Risk averse
Stock offer higher average returns than
bonds because:
People are risk averse,to be willing to hold
a risky security they must receive higher
expected return as a reward for doing so.
The additional average returns from
stocks should reflect the greater
riskiness of stocks.
Finance theory says:
Average returns over long periods of time
are determined by risk
How much extra return do we need to
be compensated for the additional risk?
Is the 6% equity premium enough? Is it
too much?
Equity premium puzzle
Economist have had trouble justifying a
premium as big as 6% on the basis of risk
效用
财富
5.2风险便好
例子
2121 )1()1( XUXUXXU
5.3 风险中性
例子
2121 )1()1( XUXUXXU
5.4 风险回避者的无差异曲线
当资产的回报率 服从以 为均值,以 为标准差的正态分布时,风险厌恶者的回报与风险之间的边际替代率是正的,无差异曲线是凸的,并且,位于更西北方向的无差异曲线的效用更高。
例子:
r~ r s
20 0 5.0)( sArEU
2r
1r
2
21 rr?
1s 2s
2 21
ss?
11,rs
22,rs
2,2 2121 rrss
r
s
图 1:风险回避者的无差异曲线
不同风险厌恶程度
无差异曲线不能相交
X
假设:所有风险厌恶者的无差异曲线如图 1所示,在均值 -标准差平面上,
为严格增的凸函数,并且,越在西北方向的无差异曲线,其效用越高。
6,Asset risk and portfolio risk
Investors must take account of the
interplay between asset returns when
evaluating the risk of a portfolio
The risk of individual asset in a portfolio
must be measured in the context of the
effect of their return on overall portfolio
variability.
Example
Best Candy stock
SugarKane stock
Normal Year for Sugar Abnormal Year
Bullish Stock
Market
Bearish Stock
Market
Sugar Crisis
Probability 0.5 0.3 0.2
Rate of return 25% 10% -25%
Normal Year for Sugar Abnormal Year
Bullish Stock
Market
Bearish Stock
Market
Sugar Crisis
Probability 0.5 0.3 0.2
Rate of return 13% 2.5% 35%
The reward and risk of three alternative (the rate of return of T-
bills is 5%)
Portfolio Expected Return Standard Deviation
All in Best Candy 10.05% 18.9%
Half in T-bills 7.75% 9.45%
Half in SugarKane 8.25% 4.83%
7,证券定价方法
个人定价 (Personal Valuation)
这种定价在只有一种证券时是正确的。 例如,宠物的价格
市场定价 (Market Valuation)
A security need not and should not be valued without
considering available alternatives,Current market values
of other securities provide important information,
because a security is seldom so unique that nothing else
is comparable,Security valuation should not be done in a
vacuum,it should instead be performed in a market
context.----W,F,Sharpe,etc.
定价是相对的
保险中的例子,假设一种人身保险,对象为 60
岁健康的老人:如果从投保之日起,在一年之内被投保人去世,保险公司支付投保人 100000元,
否则,保险公司不支付任何款项。这种险种的价格为 2300元。现在,某公司 60岁的总裁向你贷款,条件是,如果一年后他还健在,他支付给你
100000元,否则,你回收不了任何贷款。问题是,你到底应该贷多少给这位总裁。
代表这位总裁答应支付给你 100000元的这份协议,其实是你购买的一份证券,从这个角度来看,
问题变成,这份证券的价格为多少?
由无套利原理,这个价格显然依赖于市场上已有的证券:
保险公司的保险和无风险利率。作为投资者,你将利用套期保值来对冲投资的风险。假设无风险利率为 =8%。你贷款给公司总裁(即,你以价格买了一份证券),再花 2300
元给这位总裁买一份保险。一年后,如果这位总裁去世,
你不能追回任何贷款,但你得到保险公司的赔偿 100000元。
如果这位总裁健在,保险公司不会支付任何赔偿,但你按照协议从这位总裁处得到 100000元。所以,无论哪种情况发生,你都会得到 100000元。
这正是金融学方法论的实质所在:利用已知价格证券来模拟未知价格,以达到定价之目的。
下表列出了本例中套期保值的过程。
证券 不确定事件总裁去世 总裁健在 成本贷款 0 100000元 P
保险 100000元 0 2300元总和 100000元 100000元 92592.59元
由无风险利率,无风险证券组合现在的价格为 92592.59元。
由此,你现在贷款为 P =90292.59元。
证券市场定价
定价公式
资产价格运动的原因
为了定价我们需要
现金流
需求回报率
折现值公式
=riskless nominal interest rate+risk
premium =real interest rate +expected
inflation+risk premium
称为
折现率
期望回报率
需求回报率
1
1
1ti ti
t
t r
dEP
r
r
股价运动的原因
将来红利的预期值发生变化(现金流)
折现率发生变化
无风险利率
风险酬金
风险量变化
投资者需求的每单位风险补偿发生变化(风险价格)
Understanding the effect of economic
reports
Bonds and Inflation
if news comes out that inflation is higher than
expected,bonds fall because,,,
discount rates are higher
lenders raise rates to cover the rise in inflation
the Fed may tighten credit to prevent
overheating
Stocks and Inflation
if inflation is higher than expected
just like with bonds,discount rates are higher
however,cashflows also rise with inflation
over the long-term,the two effects cancel out
over the short-term,the first effect may dominate and
stock prices may fall:
a Fed tightening may reduce near-term cash-flows
(typically,we witness a stock market decline when
interest rate increases are announced)
tax effects (less borrowing less tax deductible
interest,therefore the government takes a bigger bite
of corporate profits)
分析我国现在股价下跌的原因
国有股减持
国民经济增长 8%
政策市
如何估计正确的现金流
如何确定正确的风险酬金
确定正确风险量
确定风险价格
方法
套利定价 —— APT
均衡定价 —— CAPM
回报和风险的定义
投资者制定投资目标应考虑回报和风险
投资者厌恶风险,承担风险需要补偿
不同的投资者对风险厌恶程度不一样,怎样刻画不同投资者对收益 -风险之间的权衡关系
市场给出收益 -风险之间的公平关系 -市场定价
1,回报率的定义
回报率是对证券表现的一种度量。
总回报率 (持有期收益率 HPR(holding period
return))
假设红利在持有期末支付
t
tt
t P
PdR 11
1
Example,buy share at $50,at end of
year it is worth $55 and pays $2
dividend
Gross Return=
14.150 552
净回报率
净回报率 =收入收益 +资本利得
1111
t
tt
t P
Pdr
t
tt
t
t
P
PP
P
d 11
HPR provides a useful device for
simplifying the complex reality of
investment analysis,Although no
panacea,it allows an analyst to focus
on the most relevant horizon in a given
situation and offers a good measure of
performance over such a period.
多期回报率和复利
例子:一种股票现价为 46元,假设一年后价格为 50元,两年后价格为 56元;在第一年中红利为 1.5元,第二年中红利为 2元,假设每次分红都在年末进行,求这种股票在这两年中的持有期收益率 HPR,以及以复利计算时的每年持有期收益率 HPR。
假设红利支付后马上投资几何平均与算术平均
2,证券投资的风险
风险是指未来的不确定性
没有风险就没有股市
2001年下半年以来的中国股市
2001年 9.11
1987年 10月 19日,被称为“黑色星期一”
DJIA 下跌了 22.6%(508点)
近八年中国股市
NIKKI 225 Index
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
Jan-85 Jan-86 Jan-87 Jan-88 Jan-89 Jan-90 Jan-91 Jan-92 Jan-93 Jan-94 Jan-95 Jan-96 Jan-97 Jan-98 Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01 Jan-02
NASDAQ指数曾高达 5100多点,2002/10/2不到 1200!
微软为绩优股,但股价已较 2000年高位下跌约六成!
LUCENT 2002/10/2股价仅 $0.75,不及 1999年高位的 1%!!
证券投资的风险
例子:下一年你有 5000块钱用于投资,
投资一年,有六种投资机会供选择:
( 1) 30天到期、现在年收益率为 6%的货币市场基金
( 2)一年定期存款,利率为 7.5%
( 3) 10年期长期国债,每年收益为 9%
( 4)一种股票,现价 10元 /股,下一年的预期股价为 11.2元 /股,且估计红利为 0.2元
( 5)一人向你借钱,期限一年,利率 15%
(6)以 8.4元人民币兑 1美元买外汇证券投资的收益和风险
问题
你投资在哪种证券
有哪些风险
如何度量风险
如果该股票下一年的预期价格为 10元,你是否会投资该股票
投资者如何决策证券投资风险
风险的来源
经营风险 (Business risk)
财务风险 (Financial risk)
流动风险 (Liquidity risk)
违约风险 (Default risk)
利率风险
通货膨胀风险
国家经济状况
系统风险与非系统风险收益和风险的例子
一支股票,现价 100元 /股,预期在接下来的一年中的红利为 4元,一年后的价格预期为下表所示,无风险利率为 6%
state of the economy probability ending price HPR
boom 0.25 140元 44%
normal growth 0.50 110元 14%
recession 0.25 80元 -16%
3,对风险证券收益的度量
期望回报率 (expected return)
样本均值
The record of past rates of return is one possible
source of information about expected return,
因为我们无法知道将来,所以用样本均值来估计期望回报率,
实现回报率 (realized return)
风险酬金 (risk premium)与超额回报率 (excess
return)
例子:风险酬金 (risk premium)与超额回报率 (excess return)
一支股票,现价 100元 /股,预期在接下来的一年中的红利为 4元,一年后的价格预期为下表所示,无风险利率为 6%
state of the economy probability ending price HPR
boom 0.25 140元 44%
normal growth 0.50 110元 14%
recession 0.25 80元 -16%
4,对风险证券风险的度量
方差、标准差
样本方差
The record of past rates of return is one
possible source of information about
variance.
因为我们无法知道将来,所以用样本方差来估计方差,
We should stress that variability of HPR in
the past can be an unreliable guide to risk,
at least in the case of the risk-free asset.
For risk-free asset,the variance is zero,but
the sample variance is not zero,This
reflects variation over time in expected
returns rather than fluctuations of actual
returns around prior expectations,
最大、最小值之差
频率分布
作业:计算我国股市的回报率和风险
目的:使得我们对各种可能投资的表现有一个合理的预期。
要求:
把股票分成大、中、小三个板快分别计算回报率和风险
按照样本均值、最大和最小值、分布频率分别计算回报率
VaR (Value at Risk)
the expected maximum loss (or worst loss)
over a target horizon within a given
confidence interval
1))()()0(( Va rTWWP
例子
HPR的方差
HPR的标准差
Annual rates of return,1926-1999
Sm a ll
stocks
Lar g e
stocks
Long -
te r m
b o n d s
In te rm
ediat e-
te r m
b o n d s
T-b il ls inflat i
on
Me an 1 8,81 1 3,1 1 5,3 6 5,1 9 3,8 2 3,1 7
St.
Dev
3 9,69 2 0,21 8,1 2 6,3 8 3,2 9 4,4 6
The trade-off between risk and
return
一般来说,高收益伴随着高风险
The equity premium for the market of
U.S,from 1926-2002 is 5.9%
W = 100
W1 = 150 Profit = 50
W2 = 80 Profit = -201-p =,4
E(W) = pW1 + (1-p)W2 = 6 (150) +,4(80) = 122
s2 = p[W1 - E(W)]2 + (1-p) [W2 - E(W)]2 =
.6 (150-122)2 +,4(80=122)2 = 1,176,000
s? 34.293
Example,Risk - Uncertain Outcomes
W1 = 150 Profit = 50
W2 = 80 Profit = -201-p =,4100
Risky Inv.
Risk Free T-bills Profit = 5
Risk Premium = 17
Example,Risky Investments
with Risk-Free Investment
The question of whether a given risk
premium provides adequate compensation for
the investment’s risk is age-old.
One of central concerns of finance theory is
the measurement of risk and the
determination of the risk premiums that
investors can expect of risky assets in well-
function capital markets.
5,投资者的选择方式
投资者的效用函数
例子
最大化效用函数
)e x p()( TT WWU
5.1 风险厌恶
例子,a lottery where you will either receive
$50,000 if a coin lands heads and lose
$20,000 if it lands tails
compare this with getting $15,000 for sure
most people would prefer the sure $15,000,both
choices offer an expected reward of $15,000 but
one of them also has risk,which we dislike
if the sure thing reward was only $10,000,you
might choose the lottery instead
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Risk averse
Stock offer higher average returns than
bonds because:
People are risk averse,to be willing to hold
a risky security they must receive higher
expected return as a reward for doing so.
The additional average returns from
stocks should reflect the greater
riskiness of stocks.
Finance theory says:
Average returns over long periods of time
are determined by risk
How much extra return do we need to
be compensated for the additional risk?
Is the 6% equity premium enough? Is it
too much?
Equity premium puzzle
Economist have had trouble justifying a
premium as big as 6% on the basis of risk
效用
财富
5.2风险便好
例子
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5.3 风险中性
例子
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5.4 风险回避者的无差异曲线
当资产的回报率 服从以 为均值,以 为标准差的正态分布时,风险厌恶者的回报与风险之间的边际替代率是正的,无差异曲线是凸的,并且,位于更西北方向的无差异曲线的效用更高。
例子:
r~ r s
20 0 5.0)( sArEU
2r
1r
2
21 rr?
1s 2s
2 21
ss?
11,rs
22,rs
2,2 2121 rrss
r
s
图 1:风险回避者的无差异曲线
不同风险厌恶程度
无差异曲线不能相交
X
假设:所有风险厌恶者的无差异曲线如图 1所示,在均值 -标准差平面上,
为严格增的凸函数,并且,越在西北方向的无差异曲线,其效用越高。
6,Asset risk and portfolio risk
Investors must take account of the
interplay between asset returns when
evaluating the risk of a portfolio
The risk of individual asset in a portfolio
must be measured in the context of the
effect of their return on overall portfolio
variability.
Example
Best Candy stock
SugarKane stock
Normal Year for Sugar Abnormal Year
Bullish Stock
Market
Bearish Stock
Market
Sugar Crisis
Probability 0.5 0.3 0.2
Rate of return 25% 10% -25%
Normal Year for Sugar Abnormal Year
Bullish Stock
Market
Bearish Stock
Market
Sugar Crisis
Probability 0.5 0.3 0.2
Rate of return 13% 2.5% 35%
The reward and risk of three alternative (the rate of return of T-
bills is 5%)
Portfolio Expected Return Standard Deviation
All in Best Candy 10.05% 18.9%
Half in T-bills 7.75% 9.45%
Half in SugarKane 8.25% 4.83%
7,证券定价方法
个人定价 (Personal Valuation)
这种定价在只有一种证券时是正确的。 例如,宠物的价格
市场定价 (Market Valuation)
A security need not and should not be valued without
considering available alternatives,Current market values
of other securities provide important information,
because a security is seldom so unique that nothing else
is comparable,Security valuation should not be done in a
vacuum,it should instead be performed in a market
context.----W,F,Sharpe,etc.
定价是相对的
保险中的例子,假设一种人身保险,对象为 60
岁健康的老人:如果从投保之日起,在一年之内被投保人去世,保险公司支付投保人 100000元,
否则,保险公司不支付任何款项。这种险种的价格为 2300元。现在,某公司 60岁的总裁向你贷款,条件是,如果一年后他还健在,他支付给你
100000元,否则,你回收不了任何贷款。问题是,你到底应该贷多少给这位总裁。
代表这位总裁答应支付给你 100000元的这份协议,其实是你购买的一份证券,从这个角度来看,
问题变成,这份证券的价格为多少?
由无套利原理,这个价格显然依赖于市场上已有的证券:
保险公司的保险和无风险利率。作为投资者,你将利用套期保值来对冲投资的风险。假设无风险利率为 =8%。你贷款给公司总裁(即,你以价格买了一份证券),再花 2300
元给这位总裁买一份保险。一年后,如果这位总裁去世,
你不能追回任何贷款,但你得到保险公司的赔偿 100000元。
如果这位总裁健在,保险公司不会支付任何赔偿,但你按照协议从这位总裁处得到 100000元。所以,无论哪种情况发生,你都会得到 100000元。
这正是金融学方法论的实质所在:利用已知价格证券来模拟未知价格,以达到定价之目的。
下表列出了本例中套期保值的过程。
证券 不确定事件总裁去世 总裁健在 成本贷款 0 100000元 P
保险 100000元 0 2300元总和 100000元 100000元 92592.59元
由无风险利率,无风险证券组合现在的价格为 92592.59元。
由此,你现在贷款为 P =90292.59元。
证券市场定价
定价公式
资产价格运动的原因
为了定价我们需要
现金流
需求回报率
折现值公式
=riskless nominal interest rate+risk
premium =real interest rate +expected
inflation+risk premium
称为
折现率
期望回报率
需求回报率
1
1
1ti ti
t
t r
dEP
r
r
股价运动的原因
将来红利的预期值发生变化(现金流)
折现率发生变化
无风险利率
风险酬金
风险量变化
投资者需求的每单位风险补偿发生变化(风险价格)
Understanding the effect of economic
reports
Bonds and Inflation
if news comes out that inflation is higher than
expected,bonds fall because,,,
discount rates are higher
lenders raise rates to cover the rise in inflation
the Fed may tighten credit to prevent
overheating
Stocks and Inflation
if inflation is higher than expected
just like with bonds,discount rates are higher
however,cashflows also rise with inflation
over the long-term,the two effects cancel out
over the short-term,the first effect may dominate and
stock prices may fall:
a Fed tightening may reduce near-term cash-flows
(typically,we witness a stock market decline when
interest rate increases are announced)
tax effects (less borrowing less tax deductible
interest,therefore the government takes a bigger bite
of corporate profits)
分析我国现在股价下跌的原因
国有股减持
国民经济增长 8%
政策市
如何估计正确的现金流
如何确定正确的风险酬金
确定正确风险量
确定风险价格
方法
套利定价 —— APT
均衡定价 —— CAPM